Discrimination based on skin color , also known as colorism or shadeism , is a form of prejudice or discrimination in which people are treated differently based on the inherent social meanings of color skin.
Colorism , a term coined by Alice Walker in 1982, is not a synonym for racism. Many factors can contribute to "race" (including ancestors); therefore, racial categorization depends not only on skin color. Skin color is just one of the mechanisms used to assign individuals to race categories, but race is a set of beliefs and assumptions defined for that category. Racism is the dependence of social status on the social meanings inherent in race; colorism is the dependence of social status on skin color itself . For a form of discrimination to be regarded as color, different treatment should not result from racial categorization, but from social values ​​associated with skin color. The "color line problem" is a concept created by W. E. B. Du Bois, which explains the difference between light and dark colors of skin color.
Research has found extensive evidence of discrimination based on skin color in criminal justice, business, economics, housing, health care, media and politics in the United States and Europe. Brighter skin tones are seen to be preferred in many countries in Africa and Asia.
Video Discrimination based on skin color
Worldwide
Several meta-analyzes found extensive evidence of ethnic and racial discrimination in recruitment in the North American and European labor markets. A 2016 meta-analysis of 738 correspondence tests in 43 separate studies conducted in OECD countries between 1990 and 2015 found that there was extensive racial discrimination in hiring decisions in Europe and North America. Equal minority candidates need to send about 50% more apps to be invited for interviews than the majority candidates. Recent research in the United States shows that socio-economic and health inequality among African-Americans along the color continuum is often the same or even greater than that of whites and African Americans as a whole.
In the 20th century there has been a shift towards a preference for dark and dark skin in the white community. The beginning of this change has been attributed to the French woman Coco Chanel who made the tanned skin look fashionable, luxurious and healthy in Paris in the 1920s. Tanned skin has become associated with increased leisure time and sportsmanship of wealth and social status while pale skin is associated with indoor office work. Several studies have found tanned skins are considered more attractive and healthier than pale or very dark skin, and there is a direct correlation between the level of tanning and the attraction that is felt especially in young women.
Maps Discrimination based on skin color
Africa
Liberia
In Liberia, the descendants of African-American settlers (renamed Americo-Liberia) in certain parts define social class and stand by raising people with lighter skin above those who are dark-skinned. The first Americo-Liberian presidents such as Joseph Jenkins Roberts, James Spriggs Payne, and Alfred Francis Russell have a sizeable proportion of European descent. Most probably only a quarter or an eighth of African Americans. Another aspect of their rise to power, however, is probably related to their chances of getting education and good livelihood work.
In addition to competition among African American descendants, Americans refrain above native Africans in Liberia. Thus, the descendants of Americans hold and maintain power beyond the proportion of their representation in the population of the whole country, so there is a greater problem than color in the workplace.
South Africa
Colored people consist of three mixed race populations in South Africa who are given more social privileges than indigenous African groups that do not mix. During the apartheid era, in order to maintain division and maintain racially-focused societies, the government used the term "Color" to describe one of the four major racial groups identified by law: Blacks, Whites, Colors and Indians. (All four terms are capitalized in apartheid-era law.) Many Griquas begin to identify themselves as "Coloreds" during the apartheid era. There are certain advantages that are "Colored". For example, Coloreds does not have to carry a dummy (identity document designed to limit the movement of non-white citizens), while Griqua, regarded as another indigenous African group, does so.
Sudan
A popular phrase in Sudan is al-Husnu ahmar (Arabic: ????????) meaning "red beauty," although white is the ideal color in most Arab societies. The following beauty ranking in descending order is: asmar (Arabic: ????) which means light brown, literally "brown," dhahabi (Arabic: ??? ?) which means "gold," gamhi (Arabic: ????) which means wheat, khamri (Arabic: ????) which means colored wine, and last akhdar which means "bright black" - literally, "green." Akhdar is a polite alternative descriptive term for "black" which means dark-skinned Arabs. Lastly, azraq (Arabic: ????) meaning "blue" is used interchangeably with aswad (Arabic: ????) meaning "black"; However, in the past aswad has been referring to a bright white skin.
Asia
East and South Asia
In East, South and Southeast Asia, the preference for lighter skin is prevalent, especially in countries such as China, Korea, India and Japan.
The history of skin whitening in East Asia dates back to ancient times. In an era of ancient dynasties, to be bright in an environment where the sun is a rough and aristocratic implied wealth because individuals are able to remain indoors while employees have to work out. Ancient Asian cultures connect the bright skin with feminine beauty in particular. White skin "Jade" in Korea is known as the ideal as far as the Gojoseon era. The Japanese Edo period saw the beginning of the trend of women whitening their faces with rice powder as a "moral obligation." Chinese women appreciate the skin of "white milk" and swallow the pearl powder in that direction. Four out of ten women surveyed in Hong Kong, Malaysia, the Philippines and South Korea used skin lightening cream. In many Asian cultures, color tinting is taught to children in fairy tales, just like the Grimm fairy featuring a bright-skinned princess or girl; Asian mythological protagonists are usually fair and describe virtue, purity, and goodness. Bright skin is equated with feminine beauty, racial superiority, and strength, and continues to have a powerful influence on the prospects of marriage, employment, status, and income.
East Asian globalization still maintains this bias, but they are exacerbated by the influence of westernized beauty and media ideas that equate whiteness with modern and urban wealth and success. The legacy of European colonialism in India and Pakistan also affects the modern relationship between skin and the power of light.
India
It is mistakenly assumed by Western scholars that the Kali Hindu Goddess represents demonic and evil powers and, as a dark-skinned goddess (whose name translates to "black-skinned"), is therefore a demonstration of Indian staining. But this is then understood incorrectly, as Kali is traditionally viewed positively, seen as a symbol of sexuality, maternal love, violence, and power. There are also many black examples exemplified as sacred as with Shiva, and the most famous and popular avatars of Lord Vishnu, Krishna and Rama. More recently, this was conceived as a strategy by British colonial power to subdue Indian civilization.
Colors in India have also been encouraged because of events under British colonial rule, where British officials consistently underestimated dark-skinned Indians and favored bright-skinned Indians for jobs over dark-skinned Indians. As a result of hundreds of years of British colonial influence, Indian society today still portrays the remnants of exacerbated color tactics implanted in Indian society by the British. Other forms of staining in India can be seen in the cosmetics industry, where the cream intended to brighten the skin is very popular, and in the Bollywood industry, where the majority of hired white actors and actresses, and actresses are often photographed to look brighter.
For example, in the state of Maharashta a group of young tribal girls are trained to become flight crews through a government scholarship program aimed at empowering women. The majority of girls are denied work because of their darker skin color. Some of them women landed jobs, but only as out-of-sight ground crew.
Pakistan
Skin whitening cream is popular in Pakistan, especially among women. Many such advertisements feature bright skin models in good light while depicting dark-skinned models poorly. Bollywood, which features mostly bright-skinned Indian actors, is also influential among Pakistanis.
China and Japan
Hiroshi Wagatsuma writes in Daedalus that Japanese culture has long associated skin color with other physical characteristics that indicate the degree of spiritual or primitive perfection. The learner repeats the old Japanese proverb: "white skin forms seven defects." More specifically for a woman, a very light skin allows one to ignore the lack of other desirable physical characteristics. The color of the skin has and continues to affect the attractiveness as well as socio-economic status and ability.
People in the western hemisphere have long characterized East Asians, especially Chinese and Japanese, as "yellow," but Chinese and Japanese rarely describe their skin color in that way. The Japanese traditionally uses the word shiroi - which means "white" - to describe the brighter skin tone in their community.
The Japanese court ladies during the period of Nara 710-779 AD applied a large amount of white powder to the face and added reddish cheeks. Many references to obese women with white skin appear in both drawings and posts from 794-1186 AD. In the literature, consider for example The Tale of Genji (written c. 1000-1012) by Lady Murasaki.
Malaysia
A survey concluded that three-quarters of Malaysian men consider their partners to be more attractive if they have whiter skin.
In certain Southeast Asian countries such as Malaysia, the ideal general beauty is the locally known "Eurasian appearance" in Malaysia as a "pan-Asian look" is an ideal derived from the fair skin fair beauty that Eurasians tend to possess natural.. The excessive use of Pan-Asian faces on billboards and on television has become a controversial issue in the country. The issue was highlighted in 2009 when Zainuddin Maidin, a Malaysian politician, called for a pan-Asian face reduction that he claimed dominated TV and billboards and increased the number of Malay, Chinese and Indian faces on local television. Despite the controversy surrounding preference for mixed Asian (Malay, Chinese or Indian) and European descendants who have fair skin-like features, some industry experts say the use of pan-Asian faces can be used to promote the diversity of Malaysian races. They can also be used to promote products in the direction of different racial demographics due to their mixed appearance suggested by the Ministry of Information in 1993.
Europe
Research shows that police practices, such as racial profiling, over-policing in minority-dominated areas and group biases can lead to a very high number of racial minorities among suspect criminals in Sweden, Italy and England and Wales. The research also shows that there may be discrimination by the judicial system, which contributes to a higher amount of confidence for racial minorities in Sweden, the Netherlands, Italy, Germany, Denmark and France.
Several meta-analyzes found extensive evidence of ethnic and racial discrimination in recruitment in the North American and European labor markets. A 2016 meta-analysis of 738 correspondence tests in 43 separate studies conducted in OECD countries between 1990 and 2015 found that there was extensive racial discrimination in hiring decisions in Europe and North America. Equal minority candidates need to send about 50% more apps to be invited for interviews than the majority candidates.
Meta-analysis 2014 finds extensive evidence of racial and ethnic discrimination in the housing markets of several European countries. There is widespread discrimination against immigrant groups in the French housing and labor market.
A 2017 experimental study found that the Dutch discriminated against non-Western immigrants in a game of trust.
The romantic drama Clare Anyiam-Osigwe No Shade (2018) faces the coloring problem in Britain.
South and Central America
Brazil
Brazil has one of the world's largest population of African descent living outside of Africa. Racially mixed individuals with lighter skin generally have higher levels of social mobility. There is a disproportionate amount of mostly descendant European descent than the people of African descent seen. There is a huge health, education, and income gap between races in Brazil. A recent study has even found that skin tone is a stronger predictor of social inequality in Brazil than 'race' (ie the 'race-color' category used in the Brazilian census); and highlights that skin tone is felt socially and 'race' is not the same thing. Although chocolate and blacks make up more than 50 percent of the population, they comprise less than 25 percent of elected politicians.
A 2016 study, using twins as a control for the environment and family characteristics, found that white twins are unlucky in the education system. A 2015 study of racial bias in the evaluation of teachers in Brazil found that Brazilian mathematics teachers provided better judgment assessments of white students than black students who were both proficient and equally behaved.
Chile
A study of 2016 found that Chilean school teachers had lower expectations of dark-skinned students ( morenos ) than bright-skinned students ( blancos ).
North America
Mexico
A 2017 study reveals a 45% gap in educational achievement among the darkest and lightest skinned Mexicans and wealth in the country is also correlated with skin tone.
United States
History
European colonialism created a system of racial hierarchy and racial-based ideology, which has led to a dominant structure that privileges blacks over blacks. Biological differences in skin color are used as a justification for slavery and oppression of Africans, developing a social hierarchy that puts white people on top and blacks at the bottom, with the exception of "white trash," which is considered inferior to blacks. Slaves with lighter skin are allowed to engage in less demanding tasks, such as domestic duty, while darker slaves participate in hard work, most likely outside. African Americans with partial white heritage look smarter and superior to dark-skinned blacks, giving them wider opportunities for education and land and property acquisition. Color is a tool used by white invaders to create divisions between Africans and further the idea that as close to white as possible is the ideal image. One of the first forms of coloration is the owner of a white slave who decides that only light-skinned slaves working at home while darker are subjected to harsh conditions in the fields. This leads to a clear division between slaves. There are tests to determine who is light enough to work at home and sometimes get privileged. One of these tests is a brown paper bag test. If a person's skin is darker than a brown paper bag, they are considered too dark to work at home. Skin testing is not only used by white people who try to distinguish between blacks, but also by blacks themselves. In addition to bag tests, comb tests and door tests are also used. The comb test is used to measure the hair detail of the people. The goal is that the comb can pass through the hair without stopping. The door test is very popular in some African American clubs and churches. The people responsible will paint the door with a certain brown color, similar to a bag test, and if you are darker than the door, you are not allowed into the building. These tests are used to measure what level of "darkness" is and is unacceptable to the world. Since the lighter slaves are allowed to work at home, they are more likely to be educated than the darker slaves. It gave birth to stereotypes that dark people are stupid and stupid. Scholars have suggested that the preferred color of beauty will not be black or white, but mixed in the future. Scholars also predict the United States will adopt a "multicultural matrix" that will help bridge the racial gap in order to achieve racial harmony. The matrix has four components, mixed race will help fix racial problems, it serves as a sign of racial progress, it shows racism as a phenomenon and also shows that the focus on race is racist due to lack of racial neutrality..
Business
A 2014 meta-analysis of racial discrimination in the product market finds extensive evidence of minority applicants who cited higher prices for the product. A study in 1995 found that car dealers "cite significantly lower prices for white men than black test patrons or women using identical and written negotiating strategies." A 2013 study found that eBay eBay sellers received a 21 percent more offer if a white hand held an iPod in a photo rather than a black hand. A 2017 study found that minorities received a lower boost to income from legal education compared to whites and less likely to practice law. However, it is difficult to determine the extent to which this is the result of racial discrimination.
The criminal justice system
Research shows that police practices, such as racial profiling, over-policing in minority-dominated areas and group biases can lead to a very high number of racial minorities among criminal suspects. Research also shows that there is a possibility of discrimination by the judicial system, which contributes to a higher amount of confidence for racial minorities. A 2012 study found that "(i) the judges formed from the jury pool all white are black convicts significantly (16 percentage points) more often than white defendants, and (ii) the gap in this level of confidence is completely eliminated when the jury enters in at least one black member. "Research has found evidence of bias in groups, where" black (white) teenagers randomly assigned to black (white) judges are more likely to be imprisoned (compared to being placed on probation), and they receive a longer sentence. " Group biases have also been observed when it comes to traffic citation, because black and white police are more likely to quote outside groups.
A study of 2014 at the Journal of Economic Politics found that 9% of the black-and-white gap in punishment can not be accounted for. The abolition of unexplained punitive disparities will reduce "blacks rates in federal prisons by 8,000-11,000 men [out of the black jail population population of 95,000] and save $ 230- $ 320 million annually in direct costs. " The majority of unexplained punitive disparities seem to occur at the point when the prosecutor decides to bring charges of carrying the "mandatory minimum" sentence. A 2018 paper by Alma Cohen and Crystal Yang from Harvard Law School found that "that the judges appointed by the Republic provided much longer jail terms to black offenders than similar similar non-black offenders to the judges appointed by Democrats in the same district court. " A 2018 study in the Quarterly Economic Journal found that bail judges in Miami and Philadelphia racially contradicted black defendants, as white defendants had higher levels of pretrial errors than black defendants.
A 2016 paper by Roland G. Fryer, Jr., found that while there were no racial differences in the use of dangerous police forces, Blacks and Hispanics were significantly more likely to experience the use of non-lethal force. Reports by the Justice Department have also found that police officers in Baltimore, Maryland, and Ferguson, Missouri, systematically quit, searched (in some cases of strip searches) and harassed blacks. The DOJ's January 2017 report also found that the Chicago Police Department has been "unconstitutionally involved in excessive and lethal force patterns" and that the police "do not value the holiness of life when it comes to people of color."
In criminal detention, African-Americans with dark-to-medium-sized skin tended to receive punishment 2.6 years longer than white or light-skinned African Americans. When a white victim is involved, those with more "black" features are likely to receive far more severe penalties.
According to the 2011 analysis ProPublica , "whites are almost four times as likely as a minority to win forgiveness, even when the type of crime and the severity of punishment are taken into account."
A 2013 report by the American Civil Liberties Union found that blacks were "3.73 times more likely than whites to be arrested for possession of marijuana," although "blacks and whites use drugs, including marijuana, at the level the same one."
A 2016 analysis by the New York Times of tens of thousands of disciplinary cases against inmates by 2015, hundreds of pages of internal reports and three years of parole decisions found that race differences were embedded in the prison experience in New York. " Blacks and Latins are sent more often to solitary and held there for longer periods than whites. The New York Times analysis found that the gap is the greatest for offenses in which the prison guards have a lot of wisdom, such as disobeying orders, but smaller for offenses that require physical evidence, such as having contraband.
A 2016 report by the Sarasota Herald-Tribune found that a Florida judge sentenced the black defendant to a much longer jail sentence than a white man of the same background. For the same drug ownership crimes, blacks were sentenced to double the white time. Blacks are given longer sentences in 60 percent of criminal cases, 68 percent of the most serious first-degree crimes, 45 percent of robberies and 30 percent of battery cases. For third-degree crimes (the most serious type of crime in Florida), white judges punish blacks up to twenty percent more than whites, while black judges give more balanced sentences.
The 2017 report by the Marshall Project found that black killings by whites were much more likely to be "justified" than murder by other racial combinations.
The 2017 report by the United States Detention Commission (USSC) found, "after controlling various punishment factors" (such as age, education, citizenship, possession of weapons and previous criminal history), that "black male perpetrators received sentences over an average of 19 , 1 percent longer than similar white male offenders. "
A 2018 study in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences found that high black black men are likely to receive unauthorized attention by law enforcement. The authors further found "a causal relationship between high perception and threat perception for Black men, especially for observers who support the stereotype that Blacks are more threatening than whites."
Education
In 1954, Brown. Board of Education decides that integrated and equal schools are accessible to all children without bias for skin color. Currently in the United States, not all state-funded schools are equally funded. Schools are financed by "federal, state, and local government" while "the state plays a large and increasing role in educational funding." "Property taxes support the bulk of the funds that the local government provides for education." Schools located in low-income areas receive lower funding levels and schools located in high-income areas receive greater funding for all education based on property taxes. The US Department of Education reports that "many high poverty schools receive less than their fair share, state and local finance, leaving students at schools with high poverty rates with fewer resources than schools attended by their more peers rich. "The US Department of Education also reported this fact affecting" more than 40% of low-income schools. " Children with skin are much more likely to suffer poverty than white children.
A 2015 study using the correspondence test "found that when considering the demand from prospective students seeking future guidance, faculty were significantly more responsive to white males than all other student categories, collectively, especially in private disciplines and institutions who pay higher. " Through affirmative action, the elite college considers a wider experience for minority applicants.
The phrase "brown paper bag test", also known as a paper bag party, together with a "ruling test" refers to a ritual once practiced by certain African American associations and associations that will not let anyone into a group of colored skins. darker than a paper bag. The Spike Lee School Daze film mocks this practice at historic black universities and universities. Along with the "test paper bag", the guidelines for acceptance among lighter ratings include "comb tests" and "pencil tests," which test the roughness of a person's hair, and a "flashlight test," which tests a person's profile to make sure their features are measured or close enough to the Caucasian race.
A 2016 study in the journal PNAS found that blacks and Hispanics are systemically underrepresented in educational programs for gifted children in which teachers and parents direct students to these programs; when a universal screening program based on IQ is used to refer students, the difference is significantly reduced.
Skin discrimination in education affects individuals in different ways depending on sex. This may be due to differences in the standard of attraction, in which women are held closer than men. White women, previously thought to be in a non-discriminating group based on skin color, have been shown to be affected by this inequality. A 2013 study used a spectrophotometer reading to measure the respondent's skin color. White women experience discrimination in education, with those with darker skins graduating from college at lower rates than those whose skin is brighter. This exact and repetitive skin test reveals that white women experience skin discrimination in education at a level consistent with African Americans. White men are not affected in this way.
Health
A study in 1999 found that doctors treat black patients and whites differently, even when their medical files are statistically identical. When shown the patient's history and asked to make an assessment of heart disease, doctors are far more likely to recommend cardiac catheterization (a helpful procedure) for black patients. A 2015 study found that pediatricians were more likely to suffer from appendicitis pain in black children than white children. A 2017 study found that medical staff treating anterior ligament injuries (ACLs) considered black athletes to have higher pain tolerance than white athletes.
Housing
Meta-analysis 2014 finds extensive evidence of racial discrimination in the American housing market. Minority applicants for housing are required to make more questions to see the property. African-American geographical driving in US housing remains significant. A 2003 study found "evidence that the agency interpreted initial housing demand as an indication of customer preference, but also more likely to hold the house of all customers while in an integrated suburban environment (redlining).In addition, agent marketing efforts increased by asking prices for white , but not for black, customers, blacks are more likely than white people to see homes in suburban areas, integrated areas (steering), and event agent houses are more likely to deviate from initial demand when customers are black than when white customers These three findings are consistent with the possibility that agents act on the belief that some types of transactions are relatively unlikely for black customers (statistical discrimination). "
A report by the federal Department of Housing and Urban Development where the department sent African-Americans and whites to see the apartment found that African-Americans were shown fewer apartments for rent and homes for sale. A 2017 study found that "that [Airbnb housing] applications from guests with typical African American names are 16 percent less likely to be received relative to guests identical to distinctive white names."
A 2017 paper by Troesken and Walsh found that pre-twentieth-century cities "created and maintained housing segregation through personal norms and vigilante activities." However, "when this personal arrangement began to deteriorate in the early 1900s," whites began "lobbying the city government for segregation ordinances." As a result, cities issued an ordinance that "prohibited members of major racial groups in certain urban blocks from selling or renting property to members of other racial groups" between 1909 and 1917.
A 2017 study by Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago economists found that redlining practices - practices where banks discriminate against people in certain neighborhoods - have a persistent negative environmental impact, with redlining affecting home ownership rates, home values ​​and credit. scores in 2010. Since many African-Americans can not access conventional home loans, they must turn to predatory lenders (who charge high interest rates). Due to lower homeownership levels, slumlords can rent out apartments that should be owned.
A 2017 study at Research & amp; Politics found that white supporter Donald Trump became less likely to approve federal housing assistance when they were shown the image of a black man.
Labor market
Several meta-analyzes found extensive evidence of ethnic and racial discrimination in recruitment in the American labor market. A 2017 meta-analysis found "no change in the degree of discrimination against African Americans since 1989, although we found some indication of a decrease in discrimination against Latinos." A 2016 meta-analysis of 738 correspondence tests - tests in which the same CV for stereotyped black and white names were sent to employers - in 43 separate studies conducted in OECD countries between 1990 and 2015 found that there was racial discrimination wide in hiring decisions in Europe and North America. This correspondence test shows that equivalent minority candidates need to send about 50% more applications to be invited for interviews than the majority candidates. A study examining the actual job applications people provided with the same raÃÆ'Â © sumÃÆ'Â © s and similar interview training showed that African-American applicants without criminal records were offered jobs at levels as low as white applicants who had criminal records.
A 2017 study found that minorities received a lower boost to income from legal education compared to whites and less likely to practice law. However, it is difficult to determine the extent to which this is the result of racial discrimination. The difference in premium income appears to have been reduced in recent years.
Research shows that bright-skinned African American women have higher salaries and greater job satisfaction than dark-skinned women. Being "too black" has recently been recognized by US Federal courts in the case of employment discrimination under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. In Etienne v. Spanish Lake Truck & amp; Casino Plaza, LLC The US Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit, stipulates that an employee who was notified on several occasions that his manager thought he was "too black" to perform various tasks, found that the problem of the employee's skin color rather than the race itself, play a key role in the employer's decision to keep employees from progressing. Media
The 2017 report by Travis L. Dixon (from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign) found that the mainstream media tended to portray the black family as dysfunctional and dependent while the white families were depicted stable. This portrayal can give the impression that poverty and prosperity are primarily black issues. According to Dixon, this can reduce public support for social safety programs and lead to more stringent welfare requirements.
African Americans have whiter skin and "European features", such as brighter eyes, smaller noses and lips have more opportunities in the media industry. For example, film producers hire more affluent African Americans more often, television producers opt for lighter cast members, and magazine editors choose African American models that resemble European features. Regarding the magazine industry, African American women are rarely exhibited in the most popular magazines. Therefore, African American girls have difficulty identifying with the models on display in these magazines, as they do not represent the type of women they contact with in their own communities. Recent studies have shown that the number of racially biased advertisements in magazines has improved over the years. Content analysis by Scott and Neptune (1997) shows that less than one percent of advertisements in major magazines feature African American models. When African Americans appear in advertisements, they are primarily described as athletes, entertainers or manual workers. In addition, seventy percent of the ads featuring animal prints include African American women. Animal printing reinforces the stereotype that African Americans are animalistic, sexually active, uneducated, inferior, and very concerned with personal appearances. Regarding African American men in the media, dark-skinned men are more likely to be described as violent or more threatening, affecting the public perception of African American men. Since dark-skinned males are more likely to be associated with crime and offense, many people develop a preconceived idea of ​​the characteristics of black males.
Color and still very clear in the media. This example is shown in popular singer performances during and after slavery. The Minstrel show is a very popular form of theater that involves blacks and whites with black faces depicting blacks while doing degrading things. The actors painted their faces with black paint onto and passed their lips with bright red lipstick to exaggerate and make fun of the blacks. When live and singer performances become popular, black actors are rarely employed and when they are, they have a very specific role. These roles include being a servant, a slave, an idiot, and a villain. White people want to keep this narrative so blacks are forever indebted to them because basically they save black people from themselves and make them human, not wild. This is seen in the role of "mammy" is often played black women. The essentials of this role include black women who are loyal to their masters and care for and love their children more than themselves. Although blacks are allowed to be on TV, they still can not be too black. They must pass the color test and if they are dark, they usually play an embarrassing role. That trend is something that follows today especially for women. There is the absence of dark black women in the media and when they are shown, they usually depict stereotypes of angry black women but have bright-skinned characters to balance them. Darker women rarely become protagonists who are not distracted by drugs, or are trapped in the legal system. There is also no representation of dark women in the music industry. The object of affection in a music video is a woman who can easily pass a paper bag test and many entertainers have said that they are not women who are too dark and that they only prefer bright or white women.
Politics
A study in 2011 found that white state legislators from both political parties tend not to respond to constituents with African-American names. A 2013 study found that in response to e-mail correspondence from allegedly black aliases, "nonblack legislators are less likely to respond when their political incentives to do so diminish, black legislators usually continue to respond even when doing so promise little political rewards." So legislators blacks substantially appear to be more intrinsically motivated to advance the interests of blacks. "
Several studies have shown that white voter turnout behavior is motivated by racial threats. A 2016 study, for example, found that voter turnout in Chicago declined when public housing was reconstructed and 25,000 African Americans fled. This shows that the number of white voters declined because they did not live near African-Americans.
The Voters ID law has led to allegations of racial discrimination. In a 2014 review by the Government Accountability Office of the academic literature, three studies of five found that voter ID law reduces minority participation while two studies found no significant impact. Different impacts can also be reflected in access to information about voter ID laws. A 2015 experimental study found that election officials who questioned voter ID laws were more likely to respond to emails from non-Latin white names (70.5% response rate) than Latin names (64.8% response rate), although accuracy of responses same across the group. Studies have also analyzed racial differences in the level of ID requests. A 2012 study in the city of Boston found that black and Hispanic voters were more likely to be asked for ID during the 2008 election. According to the poll, 23% of whites, 33% of blacks, and 38% of Hispanics were asked for ID, although this effect was partially attributed to black and Hispanics prefer non-peak polling hours when election officials check larger IDs.. The rank difference also disrupts data as black voters and Hispanics tend to vote in areas dominated by blacks and Hispanics. A 2010 study of midterms 2006 elections in New Mexico found that Hispanics were more likely to generate ID requests while early, female, and non-Hispanic voters were less likely to bring in demand. A 2009 study of the 2006 national part-time election found that 47% of white voters were reportedly asked to show photo identification at the polls, compared with 54% of Hispanics and 55% of African Americans. "But very few reject votes as a result of voter identification requests A 2015 study found that the number of voters among blacks in Georgia is generally higher since the state began enacting strict voter ID laws A 2016 study by the University of California, San Diego researchers found that voter ID law "has a negative impact on the number of Hispanic, Blacks, and American mixed voters in elections and elections. "
Research by Oxford University economist Evan Soltas and Stanford political scientist David Broockman shows that voters act on racial discriminatory tastes. A study in 2018 at the Quarterly Public Opinion found that whites, especially those with racial hatred, largely attributed Obama's success among African-Americans to his race, and not his characteristic as African political candidates and preferences -America. A 2018 study in the journal American Politics Research found that white voters tend to misinterpret political candidates from racial minorities as more extreme ideologically than objective indicators would suggest; this affects the election chances for the candidates. A 2018 study in the Political Journal found that "when a white candidate makes vague statements, many [nonblack] voters project their own policy positions to candidates, increase support for candidates, but they are less likely to extend the same polite black candidate courteous... In fact, black male candidates who make ambiguous statements are actually punished for doing so by racially driven voters. "
Attractions
Color has made many blacks rethink what they believe to be the standard of beauty. Studies have shown that because of social influence, many people associate beauty with lighter skin. This is especially noticeable in children. This belief has caused many dark children to feel inadequate in themselves and inferior when compared with people with lighter skin. Color also affects the way people date. research has shown that African American women believe that they would be better off dating if they are lighter skinned especially when dating African American men. This is because the stereotypes that go along with being dark include having bad attitudes, and are less attractive.
Gender
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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