The Hindu texts present diverse and contradictory views of women's positions, ranging from feminine leadership as the highest goddess, to limiting her role as a dutiful daughter, a housewife and mother. The hymn of Rgveda, a Hindu holy book, declares feminine energy the essence of the universe, which creates all matter and consciousness, the eternal and infinite, the metaphysical and empirical reality (Brahman), the soul (the highest self) of all things. This woman is celebrated as the most powerful and empowering force in some Hindu Upanishads, Sastras and Purana, especially Devi Upanishad, Devi Mahatmya and Devi-Bhagavata Purana.
In Smritis, like Manusmriti, the position of women in Hinduism is mixed and contradictory. Manusmriti asserted that "as a girl, she must obey and seek refuge from her father, as her husband's young woman, and as the widow of her son." In fact, the daughters-in-law are not fully accepted into their husbands' families until they produce their own sons. Children alone can continue the family line. However, on the other hand, the same text affirms that "women should be respected and decorated," and "where women are honored, there the gods rejoice, but where they are not, there is no sacred ritual that bear fruit". Women who are mothers of a son, with their husbands still alive, are the members of the most fortunate communities. This is when and if their husbands die, that a woman may lose her status in society. However, scholars have questioned the authenticity and corruption of texts from time to time, given the many inconsistent versions of Smriti's manuscripts that have been found.
The ancient and medieval Hindu texts present a diverse portrait of the duties and rights of women in Hinduism. The texts recognize the eight types of marriage, starting from the father finding the married couple to his daughter and seeking her consent (Brahma's marriage), to the bride finding each other without parental participation (Gandharva marriage). Scholars claim that the Hindu texts of the Vedic age, and the records left by travelers to ancient and medieval India, show that ancient and early medieval Hindu societies did not practice Dowry or Sati. These practices are likely to expand at some time in the second millennium from socio-political developments in Indian subcontinent.
Hinduism, says Bryant, has the strongest divine feminine presence among the world's major religions, from ancient times to the present. The goddess is seen as the center of the Shakti tradition and Hindu Saiva.
Video Women in Hinduism
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Literatur Veda
Ancient Hindu texts explain the feminine admiration. Chapter 10 of the Rgveda, for example, affirms feminine to be the supreme principle behind all cosmos, in the following hymn called the Devi Sukta , , <
The Devi Sukta ideas of Rgveda were further developed in the relatively later Upanishad Shakta, declared McDaniel, where Devi asserts that he is a Brahman, from whom appears Prak? Ti (matter) and Purusha (consciousness)), he is bliss and non-bliss, Veda and what is different from him, born and unborn, and feminine thus is the whole universe. He is presented as all five elements, as well as all the different of these elements, what is above, what lies beneath, what is around, and thus the universe as a whole. This philosophy is also found in Tripuratapani Upanishad and Bahvricha Upanishad .
The early Upanishads, however, are generally silent about women and men, and focus primarily on Brahman's lack of gender and its relationship to Atman (Soul, Self). Sometimes there are exceptions. Brihadaranyaka Upanishad , composed around 800 BC, for example, in the last chapter detailing a student's education, including a lesson for his Grihastha stage of life. There, students are taught that as a husband he has to cook rice for his wife, and they together eat the food in a certain way depending on whether they want the birth of a daughter or a son, as follows,
Women are mentioned and are participants in the philosophical debates of the Upanishads, as well as scholars, teachers and pastors during the early Vedic and Buddhist period. Among the women recognized in the Upanishads are Gargi and Maitreyi. In Sanskrit, the word achary? means "female teacher" (opposite acharya meaning "teacher") and an acharyini is the wife of a teacher, indicating that some women are known as teachers.
The female characters appear in drama and epic poetry. The 8th century poet Bhavabhuti explains in his drama Uttararamacharita (verses 2-3), how the character, Atreyi, traveled to southern India where he studied the Vedic and Indian philosophy. In Madhava's Shankaradigvijaya, Shankara argues with the female philosopher Ubhaya Bharati and in verses 9 to 63 it is mentioned that he is well versed in Vedic. Tirukkoneri Dasyai, a 15th century scholar, wrote a commentary on Nammalvar's The Epics
In two Hindu epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata
The Epics is a story, but it brings their embedded dharma teachings, showing the perceived notion of women in Hinduism at the time Epic was compiled. Mahabharata, in Book 1, for example, states,
No one, even in anger, should do anything unpleasant to his wife; for happiness, joy, virtue and everything depends on the wife. The wife is the holy land where the husband is reborn, even the Rishis can not create men without women.
The Anushasana Parva of the Hindu epic Mahabharata has several chapters dedicated to the discussion of the duties and rights of women. It provides a diverse picture. In chapter 11, the goddess of wealth and prosperity, Lakshmi asserts, that he lives in women who are honest, sincere, simple, organized, devoted to their husbands and children, health conscious, patient and kind to the guests. The goddess confirms that she does not dwell in a woman who is sinful, unclean, always disagree with her husband, has no patience or fortitude, lazy, quarrels with her neighbors and relatives.
In chapter 47, when Yudhishthira sought Dharma's guidance from Bisma, Anushasana Parva compared the value of daughters to a son, as follows,
The daughter, the king, has been ordained in the scriptures to be equal to her son.
The woman's duties are again recited in Chapter 146, as a conversation between Shiva's god and his wife, Uma Goddess, where Shiva asks what the women's duties are. Uma (Parvati) proceeds to fill all the rivers, all of which are goddesses who nourish and create fertile valleys. Uma suggests that women's tasks include good character, sweet speech, sweet behavior, and sweet traits. For a woman, Uma claims, her husband is her god, her husband is her friend, and her husband is his high refuge. The duties of a woman include the physical and emotional food, admiration and fulfillment of her husband and children. Their happiness is her happiness, she observes the same oath as her husband observes, her job is to be cheerful even when her husband or her children are angry, being there for them in trouble or illness, is considered absolutely righteous. in his behavior. Beyond her husband and family, her job is to be cheerful and humble with friends and relatives, doing the best for friends and guests. His family life and his home is heaven, telling the goddess Parwati to Shiva.
Anushasana Parva has served as a source for modern-day texts on women in Hinduism. For example, Tryambakayajvan of Thanjavur, in the 18th century, published Str? Dharmapaddhati (sometimes referred to as Stri Dharma Paddhati , or "Guide for Dharma Women"). Tryambaka, according to Julia Leslie, selectively extracts verses from many chapters of Anushasana parva. He selectively extracts verses from other books from Mahabharata as well, and other ancient Indian texts, for Str? Dharmapaddhati , chooses the people he likes, omits verses from the Mahabharata that represent him the distinctive style of the presentation of many voices and counter-arguments.
Shastra and Smritis
The characterization and treatment of women are mixed in the Shastra and Smriti of Hindu texts. Scholars have questioned the insertion of later dates, corruption and authenticity of the texts, as literally dozens of different versions of the Smriti text have been found. Patrick Olivelle, for example, who is credited with the 2005 Manusmriti translation published by Oxford University Press, expressed concern in postmodern scholarship about the authenticity and reliability of Manusmriti manuscripts. He writes (summary),
The MDh [Manusmriti] is the first Indian text text introduced to the western world through Sir William Jones's translation in 1794. (...) All editions of MDh , except for Jolly , reproducing the text as found in the [Calcutta] manuscript containing Kulluka's commentary. I call this the "vulgate version". It was the Kulluka version that has been translated repeatedly: Jones (1794), Burnell (1884), Buhler (1886) and Doniger (1991). (...)
The belief in the authenticity of the Kulluka text is openly articulated by Burnell (1884, xxix): "There is no doubt that the receptus text, that is, that Kulluka Bhatta, as adopted in India and by European scholars, is very close to the original text." This is far from the truth. Indeed, one of the great surprises of my editorial work was to discover how at least fifty manuscripts I compiled actually followed harsh words in key passages.
Arthashastra, in chapter 1.21, describes women who have received military education and are in charge of protecting kings; the text also mentions women's craftsmen, beggars and women who wander the ascetic.
One of the most widely studied positions of women in medieval Hindu society is the Calcutta manuscripts now contested by Manusmriti. The text teaches holiness to widows as in verse 5.158-5.160. In verses 2.67-2.69 and 5.148-5.155, Manusmriti teaches that as a girl, she must obey and seek refuge with her father, as her husband's young woman, and as a widow of her son; and that a woman should always adore her husband as a god.
In other verses, Manusmriti respects and protects women's rights. Manusmriti in verses 3.55-3.56, for example, states that "women should be respected and decorated", and "where women are respected, there are gods rejoicing; but where they are not, there is no holy ritual bearing fruit." Elsewhere, in verse 5.147-5.148, states Olivelle, the text states, "a woman can not endeavor to live independently."
Divorce
This verse states that marriage can not be dissolved by women or men, in 8.101-8.102. However, the text, elsewhere, makes it possible to dissolve marriage. For example, verses 9.72-9.81 allow men or women to break out of fraudulent marriages or rough marriages, and remarry; the text also provides a legal means for a woman to remarry when her husband has been lost or has left her.
Varna
The text in one section defies a woman who marries someone outside her social class (varna) as in verses 3.13-3.14. At the same time, Olivelle says, this text presupposes many practices such as marriage beyond varna, such as between a Brahmin and a Shudra woman in 9,149-9,157, a widow pregnant with a child of a man who is not married in verses 9.57 -9.62 , a marriage in which a woman falls in love with her husband, and then grants legal rights in cases such as inheritance rights in 9,143-9,157, and the legal rights of the children born. The text also presupposes that a married woman may become pregnant by a man other than her husband, and dedicate verses 8.31-8.56 to conclude that the childcare belongs to the woman and her legal husband, and not to the man she is pregnant with.
Property rights
Manusmriti provides a woman with property rights over six types of property in 9,192-9,200. This includes what he receives at his marriage, or as a gift when he elopes or when he is taken away, or as a sign of love before marriage, or as a gift from his birth family, or as received from her husband after marriage, as well as from a family heritage who has died.
Inconsistency issues and authenticity
Scholars claim that less than half, or only 1,214 of the 2,685 verses in Manusmriti, may be genuine. Furthermore, the verses are not internally consistent. Verses like 3.55-3.62 of Manusmriti, for example, glorify women's position, while verses like 9.3 and 9.17 do the opposite. Mahatma Gandhi, when asked about his view of Smriti, states that "there are so many contradictions in print volume that, if you accept one part, you will inevitably reject parts that are entirely inconsistent with it. (...) Nothing has original text [of Manusmriti].
Flavia Agnes states that Manusmriti is a complex commentary from the perspective of women's rights, and the codification of the British colonial era on women's rights based on it to Hindus, and from Islamic texts to Muslims, selects and emphasizes certain aspects while it ignores other part. The construction of this personal law during the colonial era created a legal fiction around the historical role of Manusmriti as a scripture in matters relating to women in South Asia.
Purana
Purana, especially Devi Mahatmya found in Markandeya Maha-Purana, and Devi-Bhagavata Purana have some of the most dedicated discussions about Devi and the sacred females at the end of the early and early medieval era of Hinduism. However, the discussion is not limited to the two major Hindu religious texts relating to this religion. Women are found in philosophical discussions in many Puranas and texts of the times that still exist. For example, Parvati in a discussion with her husband, Shiva, commented:
You have to consider who you are, and who the nature is.... how can you go beyond nature? What you hear, what you eat, what you see - everything is Nature. How can you go beyond Nature? You are covered by Nature, even if you do not know it.
The feminine symbolism as sacred and for the reverence is present in ancient Hindu texts, but these are the fragmentary states of Brown, and it was around the sixth century AD, perhaps in northwestern India, that the concept of Maha-Devi fused as the Great Goddess, appears in the text Devi Mahatmya from Markandeya Purana. The development of this divine woman is not theoretical, according to Brown, but has had an impact on "self-understanding of Hindus to this day" and "what it means to be human in the infinite universe and not yet overwhelmed by the excellent human qualities, the care and anger of women ". Devi Mahatmya, also called Durga Saptasati (or 700 verses for Durga), has been very popular among Hindus for centuries, Coburn said. Devi Mahatmya does not try to prove that woman is the highest, but regard it as given and its premise. This idea affects the role of women in Hinduism in the Purana texts that followed for centuries, in which dominated men and dominated female couples emerged, in various legends, in similar religious texts and Hindu imaginations.
The Devi Mahatmya presents the idea, declaring McDaniel, a divine woman who created this universe, is the ultimate knowledge, which helps her and man achieve final liberation, her multitasking which at the time of prosperity is Lakshmi bring wealth and happiness to the human house, difficulty feeding and fighting as an angry woman who destroys demons and demons in the universe after morphing into Durga, Chandika, Ambika, Bhadrakali, Ishvari, Bhagvati, Sri or Devi. However, Brown notes, the celebration of the goddess as the highest in Devi Mahatmya is not universal in the first millennium Hindu texts M, and other Puranic texts celebrate the god as the highest, while recognizing the highest goddess in various chapters and presenting women as "effective forces behind men "either in mythological or theological sense or both.
The ideas of the 6th century Devi Mahatmya were adopted in the 11th century texts of the Purana Devi-Bhagavata, another goddess-classic text from the Shakti Hinduism tradition. However, this text emphasizes loyalty and love as the path to the highest realm as a goddess. In the latter text, Devi appears as a warrior goddess who destroys the devil, a mother of the world who nurtures goodness, as creator, sustainer and destroyer as different aspects of himself, the supreme.
Maps Women in Hinduism
Gender God
In Hinduism, Absolute impersonal (Brahman) has no gender. Both male gods (Devas) and female deities (Devi) are found in Hinduism. Some Hindu traditions regard God as androgyny (both female and male), or as male or female, while appreciating gender henotheism, without denying the existence of other gods in good gender.
The Hindu Bhakti tradition has both gods and goddesses. In ancient Indian and medieval mythology, each of the masculine deities of the Hindu pantheon partnered with a feminine devi. Shaktism followers, worship Devi goddess as the embodiment of Shakti (feminine power or strength).
There is a popular perception that there are millions of Hindu gods. However, most, so far, are goddesses (Shakti, devi, or mother), Foulston and Abbott states, showing "the importance and popular goddesses" in Hindu culture. Although they are generally smaller, there is a much larger goddess temple than the gods. The goddess most of the time, if not always seen as strong, and when unmarried, seen as dangerous. Regardless of the patriarchal nature of the Hindu community, women are viewed strongly beside the Gods, and at certain times, dangerous. No one has a list of millions of goddesses and gods, but all the gods, state scholars, are usually seen in Hinduism as "emanations or manifestations of a non-gender principle called Brahman, representing many sides of the Ultimate Reality". In Hinduism, "God, the universe, all beings [male, female] and all others are essentially one thing" and everything related to unity, the same god exists in every existence as the Atman, the eternal Self.
The ancient and medieval Hindu literature, the state scholar, is rich with gods, goddesses, and God's androgynous representations. This, Gross states, is very different from some monotheistic religions, where God is often synonymous with "Him" and theism is full of male anthropomorphism. In Hinduism, the goddess-imaging does not mean the loss of male deities; instead the ancient literature presents two genders as balancing each other and complementing each other. The Goddesses in Hinduism, declared Dirty, strong, beautiful and confident, symbolizing their vitality in the life cycle. While the masculine gods are symbolically represented as those who act, the feminine Goddesses are symbolically portrayed as those who inspire action. Hindu goddesses are envisioned as a protector of art, culture, nurturing, learning, art, joy, spirituality, and liberation.
Dignity of Women in Hinduism
Hinduism does not regard women as lacking dignity, therefore there are not many specific quotes about affirming women's dignity. However, there are many references in primary and secondary Hindu texts that affirm the dignity of women. Many stories from the Upanishads of female intellectuals, such as the J story? B? L, Maitreyi, G? Rg ?, Lop? Mudr ?, and Haimavat? Um ?, shows the dignity given to Women. According to verse 6.4.17 of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the birth of a daughter who will become a desirable scholar. This quote sets out a special ritual to get an educated daughter.
Ayat 6.4.17 Brihadaranyaka Upanishad:
?? ? ????????????? ?? ??????? ?????, ????????????????, ??????? ????????? ??????????????????????; ?????? ??????? ? ?? ?
atha ya icchedduhit? I pa ?? j? yeta, sarvam? yuriy? diti, tilaudana? p? cayitv? sarpi? mantama? n? y? t? m; ?? varau janayitavai || 17 ||
"Someone who wishes that a girl should be born who will become a scholar and reach a full lifetime should the rice be cooked with a fellow, and both should eat it with butter, then the creators (parent) will indeed be able to produce girls like that. "
Will Durant (1885-1981) the American historian says in his book Story of Civilization :
"Women enjoy far greater freedom in the Vedic period than in later Indians.He has more to say in his partner's choice than the form of marriage might suggest.He appeared freely at parties and dances, and joined men in religious sacrifices. learn, and like Gargi, engage in philosophical debates.If he is left as a widow, there is no restriction on his marriage. "
Practice
Wedding
The Asvalayana Grhyasutra Hinduism text identifies eight forms of marriage. Of the first four - Brahma, Daiva, Arsha and Prajapatya - are declared appropriate and recommended by the text, the next two - Gandharva and Asura - are declared inappropriate but acceptable, and the last two - Rakshasa and Paishacha - are declared evil and unacceptable children generated are granted legal rights). Brahma marriage - considers the most religiously deserved marriage, in which the father finds a learned man, proposes his daughter's marriage to him. The groom, the bride and family are willing to approve the proposal. Both family and relatives met, the girl was officially decorated, the father gave his daughter a gift in engagement, and the vedis wedding ceremony was done. This kind of marriage is now the most common among Hindus in modern India.
James Lochtefeld found that the last two forms of marriage were forbidden but recognized in ancient Hindu society, not to encourage these acts, but to provide women and children with legal protection in society.
"A woman can choose her own husband after reaching maturity, and if her parents can not choose a proper bride, she can choose her husband." (Manu Smriti IX 90 - 91)
Dowry
The concept and practice of dowry in ancient and medieval Hindu society is unclear. Some scholars believe the dowry is practiced in historic Hindu societies, but some do not. The historical eyewitness accounts (discussed below), suggested dowry in the 11th century AD. The Hindu community is insignificant, and girls have inheritance rights, which are customary at the time of their marriage.
Stanley J. Tambiah states that the ancient Law of Manu has approved the dowry and dowry in ancient India, but the dowry is a more prestigious form and is associated with the Brahmin (priest) caste. Bridewealth is limited to the lower castes, which are not permitted to give dowry. He cites two studies from the early 20th century with data to show that the pattern of dowry in upper castes and brides in lower castes had lasted until the first half of the 20th century.
Michael Witzel, on the other hand, states that ancient Indian literature shows the practice of dowries is not significant during the Vedic period. Witzel also notes that women in ancient India had the right of property inheritance either by appointment or when they did not have a brother. Kane says ancient literature shows that bridewealth is only paid in asuras-the kind of marriage deemed despicable and banned by Manu and other ancient Indian scribes. Lochtefeld pointed out that the religious duties imposed by Manu and others, such as 'the bride who was married to celebrate the marriage' were ceremonial and jewelry attire along with the gift which was his property, not the property requested or intended for the groom; Lochtefeld further notes that today's bridal jewelry is not considered a dowry in the minds of most people.
Ancient historical and epigraphic evidence from ancient India shows that dowry is not a standard practice in ancient Hindu society. Arrian from Alexander the Great's conquest era, in his first book mentions the lack of dowry, or quite rarely to be noticed by Arrian.
They (the ancient Indians) made their marriage according to this principle, for in choosing their bride did not care if she had dowry and handsome wealth, but only saw her beauty and other advantages from outsiders.
The second book Arrian also noted,
They (Indians) get married without giving or receiving dowries, but women as soon as they are married are brought forward by their fathers in public, to be chosen by the winner in wrestling or boxing or running or someone who excels in every other sports man.
About 1200 years after Arrian's visit, Al-Biruni, a Persian scholar who went and lived in India for 16 years in the 11th century, wrote,
Wedding ceremonies are brought forward. No prize (dowry or dowry) is settled between them. The man only rewards his wife, because he thinks it fits, and the wedding gift in advance, which he has no right to claim back, but the (proposed) wife may return it to him of his own will (if he does not want to marry).
Widows and remarriage
Widows are traditionally expected to pursue a spiritual life, a hermit, especially a higher caste like the Brahmin. There are restrictions to remarry. Such restrictions are now only heavily guarded by a small group of widows, but the belief continues that "a good wife precedes her husband".
During the debate before the entry into force of the Hindu Widow Remarriage Act, 1856, some communities asserted that it was their ancient custom that forbade widows remarrying. Hindu scholars and the British colonial government rejected this argument, says Lucy Carroll, for the alleged habit of banning marriage widows is far "ancient", and already in practice among the Hindu community such as Rajbansi whose members have petitioned for the ban remarriage of widows. Thus, it failed "protection of customary law" under the laws of the British colonial era. However, this problem persisted in the colonial court for decades, due to problems related to the property left by the deceased husband, and whether the widow kept or sacrificed all the rights to the deceased husband's Hindu husband and thus removed the property of the deceased husband to her new husband. Husband. While the Hindu community does not object to the widow who remarries, he opposes the property rights and the transfer of property from his previous husband's family to the family of the later husband, especially after the death of the married widow again, in the 20th century.
According to Edgar Thurston, among the Palli or Vanniyar castes in Tamil Nadu, married widows are allowed and done privately. The married widow again is known as the Naduvittu Rope , because the binding ceremony rope takes place inside the house.
Sati
Sati is an ancient Indian burial custom where a widow sacrificed herself in her husband's wood pile, or committed suicide in another way shortly after the death of her husband. Michael Witzel states there is no evidence of Sati practice in ancient Indian literature during the Vedic period.
David Brick, in his 2010 review of ancient Indian literature, states
There is no mention of any Sahagamana (Sati) either in the Vedic literature or one of the earliest Dharmasutras or Dharmasastras. With "Early Dharmasutras or Dharmasastras," I refer specifically to the early Dharmasutras of Apastamba, Hiranyakesin, Gautama, Baudhayana and Vasistha, and Dharmasastras Manu, Narada, and Yajnavalkya.
The earliest scientific discussion of Sati, whether true or false, is found in the Sanskrit literature dated from the 10th to the 12th centuries. The earliest known comment about Sati by Medh? Ithri from Kashmir stated that Sati is a form of suicide, which is forbidden by the Vedic tradition. VijÃÆ' Â ±? Ne? Vara, from the 12th-century Chalukya court, and the 13th-century Madhvacharya, contends that sati should not be considered suicidal, which is otherwise differently prohibited or discouraged in the scriptures. They offer a combination of reasons, both in favor and against sati.
Another historical practice observed among women in Hinduism is the practice of Rajput Jauhar, especially in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh, where they collectively commit suicide during the war. They prefer death rather than captured alive and not respected by the victorious Muslim army in the war. According to Bose, the practice grew in the 14th and 15th centuries with Hindu-Muslim wars in northwestern India, where Hindu women preferred death rather than slavery or rape they face if arrested. Sati-style distant custom among Hindu women was only observed during the Hindu-Muslim war in medieval India, but not during Hindu-Hindu warfare between Rajput.
Sati practice is thought to have originated from the aristocracy of warriors in Hindu society, gradually gaining popularity since the 10th century and spreading to other groups from the 12th century to the 18th century. The earliest Islamic invasions in South Asia, have been recorded since the beginning of the 8th century AD, as with the raids of Muhammad bin Qasim, and the great war of Islamic expansion after the 10th century. This chronology has led to the theory that increased sati practices in India may be related to centuries of Islamic invasion and expansion in South Asia. Daniel Gray states that the understanding of the origins and the spread of sati was distorted in the colonial era because of a joint effort to encourage the theory of "Hindu problems" in the 19th and early 20th centuries.
Education
The Vedas and Upanishads say girls can become Brahmacharini , that is getting an education. Atharva Veda, for example, states
???????????? ????? ?????? ??????? ????? | A young man who graduated from Brahmacharya, got a suitable husband.
The Harita Dharmasutra , a Hindu text then states there are two types of women: sadhyavadhu who married without going to school, and Sex and relationships
Text Smriti Hinduism provides contradictory views about sex outside of marriage. Much of the text leaves behind sexual issues in the judgment of women and men, but discusses what rights children possess resulting from that sexual union. As an example,
If a man has sexual intercourse with an unmarried woman, who allows her, it is not a violation, but she will wear it with decoration, adore her, and thus bring her to her home as her bride.
Adultery by married people is condemned in Hindu texts, but the texts allow exceptions. As an example,
If a man has sexual intercourse with a woman attached to a place other than his own home, he is known as adultery by experts, but not if he comes to his own home. This is not a punishable offense when a man has sexual intercourse with the wife of a man who has abandoned him for being evil, or with the wife of a eunuch or a man who does not care, as long as the wife has started, about him. self-will.
The term "woman attached" in the above verse, states Richard Lariviere, including a woman married and protected by her husband, or a woman unmarried and protected by her father. Manusmriti states that adultery is a source of trauma and distraction for all who are affected, but dedicates many verses that comment on the proper rights of the offspring resulting from extramarital sex. Marco Polo, after visiting the Hindu kingdom of 13th-century India, wrote in his memoirs, according to Ronald Latham's translation that "they (Hindus) regard sex in marriage as proper and virtuous, but do not assume sexual satisfaction as a sin ".
Dress
Information about the ancient and medieval dressed tradition of women in Hinduism is unclear. Textiles are generally mentioned in ancient Indian texts. Arthashastra (~ 200 BCE to 300 CE) mentions various clothing and plant-based, muslin-based, wool-based textiles that are partially or wholly dyed, knitted and woven. However, it is uncertain how these women wear these clothes, and scholars have tried to distinguish them from learning murti (sculpture), wall reliefs, and ancient literature. In ancient and medieval Hindu traditions, covering heads or faces are not mandated or common, but Ushnisha - ceremonial regional ceremonial gowns are mentioned, such as Dupatta in the northern part of the cooler and drier Indian continent.
Regardless of economic status, the costumes of ancient Hindu women were made up of two separate pieces of cloth, one wrapped around the lower part of the body, below the waist, and another enveloping a larger section called Dhoti (modern Saree) in the text. Some Murti and relief carvings show that the creases are used, possibly to facilitate movement, but the creases are tucked in to reveal the contours of the body. However, where the fold is tucked, the front or side or back varies regionally. The dominant style observed in ancient texts and artwork is to wrap the excess of the Dhoti from the right waist above the left shoulder, in the Vedic Upanayana style. Her breasts are covered with a tight, tightly stitched bodice called Kurpasaka (Sanskrit: ???????) or Stanamsuka (Sanskrit: ??????? ?), but this is not common in extreme southern India or in the eastern states like Orissa and Bengal. Regional variations are excellent, consistent with the weather and local traditions, in terms of length, number of folds, placement of folds, corset styles used for breasts, and the dimensions or wrappings of the excess lengths over Dhoti . The Greek record left by the people who came to India with Alexander the Great mentions that head and neck ornaments, ear rings, wrist and ankle ornaments are generally worn by women.
Typically, the essence consists of a piece of cloth about 6 feet long, wrapped clearly based on the previously mentioned factor. Selection of fabric quality and sophistication depends on income and affordability. Women across economic groups in the colonial era, for example, wore a cloth in hot, humid Bengal. It's called Kapod by poorer women, while a more ornate version of the same ornament is called Saree . The materials and costs vary, but they are the same across all income and social groups (caste/class) of Hindu women.
Sindoor or Kumkum has been a marker for women in Hinduism since its inception. A married Hindu woman usually wears a red pigment (vermilion) in her hair, while a person who is unmarried, divorced or a widow does not. A Hindu woman may wear Bindi (also called Tip , Bindiya , Tilaka or Bottu ) on her forehead. It is the inner eye, and indicates that he is spiritually transformed into. In the past, this was used by married women, but in the modern era it was fashion accessories and had nothing to do with marital status for women in Hinduism.
Cultural habits such as Sindoor are similar to wedding rings in other cultures. Regionally, Hindu women can wear seasonal fresh flowers in their hair, during festivals, temple visits or other official events. White saree is common with aging widows, while red or other colorful with embroidery is more common at festivals or social ceremonies such as weddings. These Hindu practices are cultural practices, and are not demanded by their religious texts. Hinduism is a way of life, diverse, has no binding textbook on faith, nor does it mandate any clothing rules on Hindu women. The choice is left to individual discretion.
Other ornaments worn by Hindu women are sometimes known as solitaire (sixteen decorations): "bindi, necklaces, earrings, flowers in hair, rings, bracelets, arm bracelets (for upper arms ), belts, ankle-bells, kohl (or kajal - mascara), toe rings, henna, perfumes, sandalwood paste, clothing top, and lower garments.
Bernard Cohn (2001) argues that clothing in India, during the British colonial era, was a form of authority undertaken to highlight hierarchical patterns, subordination, and authoritative relationships. Hindu people in India are subject to rules under various other religious governments, thereby influencing the choice of clothing. This is exemplified by the change of clothing as a result of the influence of the Mughal and European influences then generated from the British government. Art: dance, drama, music
Music and dance, stating Tracy Pintchman, "intertwined in the Hindu tradition", and women in Hinduism have a creative and active performance role in this tradition. While aspects of the Hindu tradition restrict women's freedom, they also provide an opportunity to create and express art. The historical evidence, says Pintchman, suggests that opportunities to create and participate in art are available to women regardless of their caste or class. Classic vocal music is more prevalent among upper class women, while public art performances such as dance are more prevalent among women in the matrilineal Hindu tradition, especially Devadasi.
Devadasi women's traditions practice their art in the context of religion. Devadasi young women are trained in music, theater and dance, and their lives revolve around Hindu temples. In southern India, some of these women are prostitutes, while others are sacred. In 1909, the colonial government passed the first law banning the practice of Devadasis in the state of Mysore; However, attempts to ban the Devadasis tradition in Tamil Hindu temples failed at the Madras Presidency in 1927. In 1947, the Madras government passed a law banning the practice of Devadasi under pressure from activists that this was a 'prostitution' tradition. However, the tradition is revived by those who regard it as a 'nun' tradition in which a Devadasi is a sacred woman who considers himself married to God and uses the traditions of temple dance to raise funds and help continue the arts.
In poetry, 9th century Andalusia became a famous poet of the Bhakti movement, declared Pintchman, and historical records show that in the 12th century he was a major inspiration for Hindu women in southern India and elsewhere. Andal continues to inspire hundreds of classical dancers in modern times with choreography and dancing to Andal songs. Andal is also called Goda , and its contribution to art has created Goda Mandali (the circle of Andal) in the Vaishnava tradition. Many other women, such as Nagaatnammal, Balasaraswati and Rukmini, claimed Pintchman, played a role in bringing "Carnatic and Bharat Natyam music to the public stage and making the performing arts accessible to the general public" in the 12th century. Gathasaptasati is an anthology of the Subhashita genre of poetry, from the first half of the first millennium M, many of which are associated with Hindu women in central and western India.
Context: historical and modern development
The role of women in Hinduism dates back to 3000 years of history, says Pechelis, incorporating Hindu philosophical ideas, Prakrti (material, femininity) and Purusha (consciousness, manhood), gathering together to interact and produce the current state. universe. Hinduism considers the connection, interdependence, and complementary nature of these two concepts - Prakriti and Purusha, women and men - as the basis of all existence, which is the starting point of the position of women in the Hindu tradition.
Although these ancient texts are the foundation on which women's position in Hinduism was established, Hindu women participate in and are influenced by cultural traditions and celebrations such as festivals, dance, art, music and other aspects of daily life. Although this liberating downstream appears in its historical context, Sugirtharajah states that there is a reluctance to use the term "feminism" to describe historical developments in Hinduism.
In the 1800's colonial era, Hindu women were described by European scholars as "pure" and "more virtuous" than any other woman.
In the context of twentieth-century history, the position of women in Hinduism and more generally in India, has many contradictions. Regional Hindu traditions are organized as matriarchal societies (as in southern India and northeastern India), where women are heads of households and inherit wealth; However, other Hindu traditions are patriarchal. God as a woman, and the mother goddess idea is respected in Hinduism, but there are rituals that treat women in subordinate roles.
The women's rights movement in India, declaring Sharma, has been driven by two fundamental Hindu concepts - lokasangraha and satyagraha. Lokasangraha is defined as "acting for the welfare of the world" and satyagraha "insist on the truth". These ideals are used to justify and stimulate movement among women for women's rights and social change through political and legal processes. Fane's remarks, in an article published in 1975, that it is a Hindu belief that underlies the "respectable woman, considered the most capable of responsibility, strong" that makes Indira Gandhi culturally accepted as Indian prime minister but the country has been in the centuries, the last century witnessed the development of various ideologies, both Hindu and non-Hindu, which has influenced the position of women in India. The efforts of the women's rights movement, Young said, have been hampered by "increasing political intensity of Muslim separatists", different positions of Hindu Indian women seeking separation of religion and women's rights, secular universal law (uniform civil code) apply regardless of religion. , while the Indian Muslim community seeks to preserve Sharia law in personal, family and other domains.
Western Scholarship
There is a pervasive and deeply held belief in modern Western times, says Kathleen Erndl, that "in Hinduism, women are universally subdued and that feminism, however it may be defined, is an artifact of the West". Postmodern scholars question whether they have "unwittingly accepted" these colonial stereotypes and old assumptions, especially given the emerging understandings of texts related to Hindu Shakti traditions, and empirical studies of women in rural India who have no exposure to thought or education West but affirms the feminism that their Hindu (or Buddhist) goddess inspires.
Western feminism, states Vasudha Narayanan, has focused on negotiating "the issue of submission and power while trying to equalize the field of opportunity" and using the language of "rights". In Hinduism, the contextual and cultural word is the Dharma, which is about "duty" for oneself, to others, among other things. There is a gap between Western books that describe Hinduism and women's struggles in the Hindu tradition based on texts opposed to the British colonial era, contrary to the reality of Hindu traditions and customs that do not follow these texts at all. Narayanan described it as follows (summary),
Many [Western] scholars correctly point out that women are given relatively low status in Hinduism texts related to law and ethics (dharma shastra ), which is not usually mentioned is that these texts are not well known and is used in many parts of Hindu India. Customs and practices are far more important than the commands of these legal texts. There are many legal texts and they are not competing with each other; they were written at different times in different parts of the country, but all were replaced by local customs. (...) There is a sense of dissonance between the scriptures and practice in certain areas of dharma, and the role of women and the Sudra sometimes falls into this category. Manu may have rejected independence for women, but there are several castes and some economic classes that give money to the temple. It is important to note that there is no general correlation that can be generalized between texts and the status, rights or behavior of women.
Ancient and medieval Hindu texts, and epics, discuss the position and role of women in society over the spectrum, such as a person who is a powerful self, who marries a powerful goddess, to a lesser person and whose identity is determined by men. than himself, and to someone who sees himself as a human being and a spiritual person while not being feminine or masculine. The sixth-century text of Devi Mahatmya, for example, states Cynthia Humes, in fact sharing "the postmodern exaltation of being, predicting it as much as the Western feminist spiritual movement". These texts are not theoretical or disconnected from women's lives in historic Hindu societies, but they affirm that all "women are part of the divine goddess", Humes said. The tradition of the Hindu goddess inspired by these texts, notes Pintchman, one of the most powerful and intriguing traditions around the world, and his followers flocked to villages, towns and cities throughout India. However, Humes added, other texts describe his creative potential not in terms, but using the words of male virility and gender dichotomy, may encourage heroic women to leave the persona and imitate men.
The postmodern empirical scholarship on the Hindu community, Rita Gross states, makes one question whether and to what extent there is patriarchism in Hinduism. Patriarchal controls are real, and Hindu societies recognize this themselves, declaring Gross, but Hindu culture distinguishes between authority - possessed by men, and power - held by men and women. Women in the Hindu tradition have power, and they use that power to control situations that are important to them. The Goddess theology and humanity in Hindu texts are the basis of these values, a form which is not feminist by Western definitions, but somehow it is feminist, which has an empowering and liberating value structure with an additional spiritual dimension in harmony with the Hindu Goddess (and Buddha).
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