Sexism is prejudice or discrimination based on the sex or sex of a person. Sexism can attack anyone, but it mainly affects women and girls. It has been linked to stereotypes and gender roles, and may include the belief that one sex or gender is intrinsically superior to the other. Extreme sexism can encourage sexual harassment, rape, and other forms of sexual violence. Gender discrimination may include sexism, and discrimination against people based on their gender identity or sex or gender differences. Gender discrimination is specifically defined in terms of inequality in the workplace.
Video Sexism
Etimologi dan definisi
According to Fred R. Shapiro, the term "sexism" was most likely created on November 18, 1965, by Pauline M. Leet during the "Student-Faculty Forum" at Franklin and Marshall College. In particular, the word sexism appears in the contribution of Leet's "Women and Scholar" forum, and he defines it by comparing it with racism, stating in part (on page 3): "When you argue... that because fewer women write this good poetry their total isolation, you take a position that is analogous to racist - I may call you in this case 'sexist'... Both racist and sexist act as if everything that has happened never happened, and both make decisions and make conclusions about the value someone with reference to factors that in both cases are irrelevant. "
Also according to Shapiro, the first time the term "sexism" appeared in the print media was in a speech by Caroline Bird "On Being Born Female", published on November 15, 1968, on Vital Speeches of the Day (page 6). In his speech he said partly: "There is a recognition abroad that we are in many ways sexist countries:" Sexism is judging people by their sex when sex is unimportant "Sexism is meant to be rhyming with racism."
Sexism can be defined as an ideology based on the belief that one gender is superior to the other. This is gender discrimination, prejudice, or stereotype, and is most often expressed in girls and women. It has been characterized as "hatred for women" and "rooted prejudice against women".
Sociology has examined sexism as a manifestation at the individual and institutional level. According to Schaefer, sexism is perpetuated by all major social institutions. Sociologists describe parallels between other ideological systems of oppression such as racism, which also operate on both the individual and institutional levels. Early female sociologist Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Ida B. Wells, and Harriet Martineau described the gender inequality system, but did not use the term sexism, which was then triggered. Sociologists who adopt a functionalist paradigm, eg Talcott Parsons, understand gender inequalities as a natural outcome of the gender dimorphic model.
Psychologists Mary Crawford and Rhoda Unger define sexism as a form of prejudice held by individuals that include "negative attitudes and values ​​about women as a group." Peter Glick and Susan Fiske coined the term
The hooks of feminist authors define sexism as a system of oppression that results in harm to women. The feminist philosopher Marilyn Frye defines sexism as "conceptual-orientation-cognitive-orientation complex" of male supremacy, male chauvinism, and hatred of women.
Maps Sexism
History
Ancient world
The status of women in ancient Egypt depended on their father or husband, but they had the property and were allowed to attend the court, including the plaintiff. Women from the Anglo-Saxon era are generally given the same status. The evidence, however, is lacking to support the idea that many pre-farm societies give women a higher status than women today. After the adoption of agriculture and settled cultures, the concept that one gender is lower than the other is established; most often it is imposed on women and girls. Examples of sexism in the ancient world include written laws that prevent women from participating in the political process; women in ancient Rome could not choose or hold political office. Another example is the scientific texts that indoctrinate children to the inferiority of women; women in ancient China were taught Confucian principles that a woman must obey her father in childhood, married husband, and widowhood child.
Witch hunt and testing
Sexism may be the impetus that sparked witch trials between the 15th and 18th centuries. In early modern Europe, and in the European colonies of North America, claims were made that witches were a threat to Christianity. The Misogini of that period played a role in the persecution of these women.
In Malleus Malificarum, the book that plays a major role in witch hunts and trials, the author argues that women are more likely to practice magic than men, and write that:
- All crimes are little for the crime of a woman... What else is a woman but an enemy of friendship, inevitable punishment, necessary evil, natural temptation, desired disaster, domestic dangers, painted with fair colors!
Magic remains illegal in some countries, including Saudi Arabia, where it can be put to death. In 2011, a woman was beheaded in that country because of 'magic and magic'. The killing of women after being accused of witchcraft is still common in some parts of the world; for example, in Tanzania, about 500 elderly women are killed every year after being accused.
When women become targets for alleged witchcraft and subsequent violence, there is often some form of discrimination - for example, gender-based discrimination with caste-based discrimination, as in India and Nepal, where the crime is relatively common.
Other wedding closures and regulations
Until the 20th century, US and British law observed a system of protection, where "by marriage, husband and wife are one in the law, ie the very existence or law of the woman is suspended during marriage". The US woman is not legally defined as "person" until 1875 ( Minor v. Happersett , 88 U.S. 162). A similar legal doctrine, called marital power, is under Dutch Roman law (and some still prevails in Swaziland now).
Restrictions on the rights of married women were common in Western countries until decades ago: for example, French married women gained the right to work without their husbands' consent in 1965, and in West Germany women acquired this right in 1977. During the Franco era, in Spain, a married woman needs her husband's consent (called permiso marital ) for work, property ownership and traveling away from home; permiso marital was removed in 1975. In Australia, until 1983, a married woman's passport application must be authorized by her husband.
Women in the world continue to lose their legal rights in marriage. For example, Yemen's marriage rules state that a wife must obey her husband and should not leave home without her permission. In Iraq, the law allows husbands to "punish" their wives legally. In the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Family Code states that the husband is the head of the household; the wife owes obedience to her husband; a wife must live with her husband wherever she chooses to live; and wives should have their husband's authorization to bring the case in court or to initiate other legal proceedings.
Discriminatory and discriminatory practices against women in marriage are often rooted in financial payments such as dowries, bridal pricing, and dowries. These transactions often serve to legitimize the wife's forced control by her husband and give her authority over her; for example Article 13 of the Personal Status Code (Tunisia) states that "Husbands will not, in the failure of dowry pay, force women to perfect marriage", implying that, if dowries are paid, marital rape is permitted (in this case, critics have questioned allegations women's advantage in Tunisia, and its image as a progressive state in the region, arguing that discrimination against women remains very strong in the country).
OMCT has acknowledged "the independence and ability to leave a cruel husband" as being crucial in stopping the persecution of women. However, in some parts of the world, after marriage, women have little chance of abandoning abusive husbands: getting a divorce is very difficult in many areas because of the need to prove a mistake in court; when attempting the de facto separation (moving from a marriage house) is also impossible because the law prevents this. For example, in Afghanistan, a wife who leaves her marriage home is at risk of being jailed for "running away". In addition, many former British colonies, including India, retained the concept of a husband-wife rights restitution, in which a wife could be ordered by the court to return to her husband; if he fails to do so, he may be insulted by the court. Other issues relate to the payment of the bridal price: if the wife wants to leave, her husband may demand the return of the bride price he has paid to the woman's family; and female families often can not or will not pay them back.
Marriage-related laws, regulations and traditions continue to discriminate against women in many parts of the world, and contribute to the persecution of women, particularly in areas related to sexual violence and self-determination in terms of sexuality, the latter is now recognized as a violation of the rights of women, women's rights; in 2012, Navi Pillay, then High Commissioner for Human Rights, has stated that: Women are often treated as property, they are sold into marriage, into commerce, into sexual slavery Violence against women often takes the form of sexual violence The victims of such violence are often accused of free association and are responsible for the fate of women. they, while infertile women are rejected by their husbands, families and communities. In many countries, married women should not refuse to have sex with their husbands, and often do not know if they use contraception... Ensure that women have full autonomy over their bodies are the first important step toward achieving substantive equality between women and men. Personal issues - such as when, how and with whom they choose to have sex, and when, how and with whom they choose to have children-are at the heart live in dignity. "
Pick and politics
Gender has been used, sometimes, as a tool for discrimination against women in politics. Women's suffrage was not reached until 1893, when New Zealand was the first country to grant women the right to vote. Saudi Arabia is the most recent country, in August 2015, to extend the right to vote for women in 2011. Some Western countries allow women the right to vote only relatively recently: Swiss women gained the right to vote in federal elections in 1971, and Appenzell Innerrhoden became a canton most recently giving women the right to vote for local issues (in 1991, when forced to do so by the Swiss Federal Supreme Court). French women were given the right to vote in 1944. In Greece, women gained the right to vote in 1952. In Liechtenstein, women gained the right to vote in 1984, through a women's suffrage referendum in 1984.
While almost every woman today has the right to vote, there is still progress to be made for women in politics. Research has shown that in some democracies including Australia, Canada and the United States, women are still represented by using gender stereotypes in the media. Many authors have pointed out that gender differences in the media are less clear today than in the 1980s, but still exist. Certain issues (eg, education) tend to be associated with women candidates, while other issues (eg, taxes) tend to be associated with male candidates. In addition, there is more emphasis on the personal qualities of women candidates, such as their appearance and personality, as women are portrayed as emotional and dependent.
Sexism in politics can also be shown in the imbalance of law-making power between men and women. Lanyan Chen states that men hold more political power than women, acting as policy guards in policy-making. It is possible that this leads to the needs of women who are not properly represented. In this sense, the inequality of law-making power also causes gender discrimination in politics. The ratio of women to men in the legislature is used as a measure of gender equality in the UN that creates the Strengthening of Gender Empowerment and its newer incarnations of the Gender Gap Index.
Gender stereotype
Gender stereotypes are widely held beliefs about the characteristics and behavior of women and men. Empirical studies have found widespread cultural belief that men are more socially valued and more competent than women in a number of activities. Dustin B. Thoman and others (2008) hypothesize that "[s] he the socio-cultural significance of capabilities versus other components of gender-mathematical stereotypes can influence women's pursuit of mathematics". Through an experiment comparing mathematical results of women under two different components of gender-mathematical stereotypes, which are mathematical and business skills in mathematics, Thoman and others found that the mathematical performance of women is more likely to be affected by negative ability stereotypes. , influenced by sociocultural beliefs in the United States, rather than business components. As a result of this experiment and sociocultural beliefs in the United States, Thoman and others concluded that individual academic results may be influenced by the gender-mathematical stereotyped components influenced by sociocultural beliefs.
In language
Sexism in language exists when language disparages members of a particular gender. The sexist language, in many instances, promotes the superiority of men. Sexism in language influences awareness, perception of reality, encoding and transmitting cultural meaning and socialization. Researchers have pointed to semantic rules in operations in the male language as the norm. This produces sexism when men become standard and those who are not male are descended to the inferior. Sexism in language is considered a form of indirect sexism, because it is not always overtly.
Examples include:
- The use of common masculine terms to refer to a mixed gender group, such as "human", "human" (referring to humanity), "male" or "officer and man"
- The use of a single masculine pronoun (he, he, she) as default to refer to someone whose gender is not known
- Terms ending in "-man" that can be done by non-male gender, such as businessman, chairman, or police
- Unnecessary use of gender markers, such as "male nurse" implies that only "nurses" are by default assumed to be female.
Sex Sex and gender-neutral language
Feminist movements in the 20th century, from liberal feminism and radical feminism to feminism perspectives, postmodern feminism, and queer theory have considered all languages ​​in their theories. Most of these theories have maintained a critical attitude in the language that calls for change in the way speakers speak their language.
One of the most common calls is for a gender-neutral language. Many have drawn attention, however, to the fact that English is not inherently sexist in its linguistic system, but instead it is used as a sexist and gender-neutral language to be used. At the same time, other critics who oppose sexism in language with the explanation that language is descriptive, not prescriptive, and attempts to control it can be fruitful.
Sexism in a language other than English
Roman languages ​​such as French and Spanish can be seen as a booster of sexism, in the sense that the masculine form is the standard form. The word "mademoiselle", meaning "homesick", was declared disposed of by the French administration in 2012 by Prime Minister FranÃÆ'§ois Fillon. The current pressure calls for the use of the masculine watchword as the default in mixed-gender groups to change. For Spain, the Mexican Ministry of the Interior has published guidelines on how to reduce the use of sexist language.
German speakers also raised the question of how sexism intersects with grammar. German is strongly influenced by gender, numbers, and cases; almost any noun that shows work or human status is gender different. For a more gender-neutral construction, gerund nouns are sometimes used instead, as this completely eliminates grammatical gender differences in plural form, and significantly reduces in a single form. For example, instead of die Studenten ("male students") or die Studentinnen ("female students"), someone wrote die Studierenden ("people who are learning"). However, this approach introduces an element of ambiguity, because gerund nouns more accurately indicate the one that is currently involved in the activity, rather than the person who is routinely involved in it as their main job.
In Chinese, some authors have shown the inherent sexism in the structure of written characters. For example, the characters for humans are associated with them for positive qualities such as courage and effect while the character for the wife consists of the female part and the broom, considered to be of low value.
Dedicated gender-specific terms
Dedicated gender-specific terms intimidate or harm others because of their gender. Sexism can be expressed in language with negative gender-oriented implications, such as condescension. For example, one can refer to women as "girls" rather than "women", implying that they are subordinate or fully immature. Other examples include obscene language. Some words offend transgender people, including "tranny", "she-male", or "he-she". Accidentally deliberate (assigning the wrong sex to someone) and the "pronoun" is also considered degrading.
Occupational sexism
Jobismism refers to discriminatory practices, statements or actions, by the sex of a person, occurring in the workplace. One form of work sexism is wage discrimination. In 2008, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) found that while women's employment rates have expanded and employment gender and wage gaps have narrowed almost everywhere, the average woman still has 20% less chance of having a job and paid 17% less than men. The report states:
[In] many countries, labor market discrimination - that is. the unequal treatment of individuals who are equally productive simply because they belong to a particular group - is still an important factor that increases employment gaps and the quality of employment opportunities [...] The evidence presented in this issue Employment Outlook > indicates that about 8 percent of variations in the gender work gap and 30 percent variation in the gender wage gap in OECD countries can be explained by discriminatory practices in the labor market.
He also found that despite the fact that almost all OECD countries, including the US, have adopted anti-discrimination laws, this law is difficult to enforce.
Women who enter a male-dominated working group may experience negative consequences of tokenism: performance pressure, social isolation, and role encapsulation. Tokenism can be used to disguise sexism, to maintain the superiority of male workers in the workplace. There is no relationship between the proportion of women working in organizations/organizations and improving their working conditions. Ignoring the sexist problem can exacerbate the problem of women's work.
In the 2005 World Values ​​Survey, respondents were asked whether they thought that wage work should be restricted to men only. In Iceland the agreed percentage is 3.6%, while in Egypt it is 94.9%.
Gaps in hiring
Research has repeatedly shown that mothers in the United States tend to be unemployed rather than equally qualified fathers and, if employed, receive lower salaries than male applicants with children.
One study found that female applicants were favored; However, the results have been greeted with skepticism from other researchers, as it is contrary to most other studies on this issue. Joan C. Williams, a prominent professor at Hastings College of California, raised the problem with her methodology, pointing out that the fictitious female candidate she used was exceptionally qualified. Studies using graduate students with higher qualifications have found that male students are far more likely to be hired, offer better salaries, and offer guidance.
In Europe, research based on field trials in the labor market, provides evidence for no severe levels of discrimination based on female sex. However, unequal treatment is still measured in certain situations, for example when candidates apply for positions at higher functional levels in Belgium, when they apply to their childbearing age in France, and when they apply for male-dominated jobs in Austria.
Income gap
Studies have concluded that the average woman gets a lower wage than men around the world. Some argue that this is the result of widespread gender discrimination in the workplace. Others argue that wage gaps are the result of different choices by men and women, as women place more value than men have children, and men are more likely than women to choose careers in high paying areas such as business, engineering and technology..
Eurostat found an average fixed salary gap of 27.5% in 27 EU member states in 2008. Similarly, the OECD found that women full-time workers earn 27% less than their male counterparts in OECD countries in 2009.
In the United States, the ratio of male-male earnings was 0.77 in 2009; women full-time workers, year-round workers (FTYR) produce 77% of male FTYR workers. Women's incomes relative to men fell from 1960 to 1980 (56.7-54.2%), rapidly increasing from 1980 to 1990 (54.2-67.6%), increasing from 1990 to 2000 (67.6- 71.2%) and up from 2000 to 2009 (71.2 -77.0%). When the First Equal Payout Act was passed in 1963, full-time women workers earned 48.9% of full-time male workers.
Research conducted in the Czech Republic and Slovakia shows that, even after the government passed anti-discrimination laws, two-thirds of the gender gaps in wages remain unexplained and segregation continues to "represent the main source of inequality".
The gender gap can also vary between work and at work. In Taiwan, for example, research shows how most gender wage inequalities occur in work. In Russia, research shows that gender wage gaps are distributed unevenly across income levels, and that is mainly the distribution of lower-end income. The study also found that "wage arrears and payments in the form of an attenuated wage discrimination, especially among the lowest paid workers, indicate that managers of Russian companies provide the lowest interest for equity consideration when allocating this form of payment".
The gender wage gap has been linked to differences in personal and workplace characteristics between men and women (such as education, working hours and employment), innate biological and behavioral differences between men and women and discrimination in the labor market (such as gender stereotypes and biases of customers and employers ). Women nowadays take more time to raise children than men. In certain countries such as South Korea, this is also a long-established practice to dismiss female employees at marriage. A study by professor Linda Babcock in her book Do Women Ask shows that men are eight times more likely to ask for a raise, suggesting that pay inequality may be partly due to behavioral differences between the sexes. However, research generally finds that some of the gender salary gaps remain unexplained after taking into account the factors that are assumed to affect income; the unexplained part of the wage gap is associated with gender discrimination.
Estimates of discriminatory components of the gender salary gap vary. The OECD estimates that about 30% of the gender salary gap in OECD countries is due to discrimination. Australian research shows that account discrimination is about 60% of wage differentials between men and women. Studies that examine gender salary disparities in the United States show that most wage differentials remain unexplained, having controlled for factors affecting payments. One study of college graduates found that part of the salary gap can not be explained after all other factors are taken into account is 5% one year after graduation and 12% a decade after graduation. A study by the American Association of University Women found that women who graduated in the United States were paid less than men who did the same job and took a course in the same field.
Wage discrimination is theorized as contrary to the economic concept of supply and demand, stating that if goods or services (in this case, labor) are in demand and have value will find their price in the market. If a worker offers the same value to pay less, supply and demand will show greater demand for lower-paid workers. If a business hires workers with lower wages for the same job, it will lower its costs and enjoy a competitive advantage. According to supply and demand, if women offer demand with the same value (and wages) should go up because they offer better prices (lower wages) for their services than men.
Research at Cornell University and elsewhere shows that mothers in the United States tend to be unemployed rather than equally qualified fathers and, if employed, receive lower salaries than male applicants with children. The OECD found that "significant impact children on female payments are commonly found in the UK and the US". Dads make $ 7,500 more, on average, than men without children.
There are studies that show that gender wage gaps cause huge losses for the economy as a whole.
Possible causes of wage discrimination
According to Denise Venable at the National Policy Analysis Center, the "wage gap" in the United States is not a result of discrimination but a difference in lifestyle choices. The Venable Report finds that women tend to be smaller than men to sacrifice personal happiness in favor of increased income or to choose full-time work. He found that among American adults working between one to thirty-five hours a week and unmarried part-time workers, women earn more than men. Venable also found that among people aged 27 to 33 who had never had children, the income of women was close to 98% of men and "women holding positions and having skills and experience similar to men facing a wage gap of less than 10 per cent, and many are within a few points ". Venable concludes that women and men with equal skills and opportunities in the same position face little discrimination or no rewards: "Unequal pay claims almost always involve comparing apples and oranges".
There is considerable agreement that gender wage discrimination exists, but when estimating the magnitude, significant differences can be seen. A meta-regression analysis concludes that "gender inequality estimates have continued to decline" and that wage rate calculations prove to be very important in estimating wage gaps. Further analysis notes that excluding experience and failing to correct selection bias from analysis may also lead to incorrect conclusions.
Glass ceiling effect
"The popular idea of ​​the effect of the glass ceiling implies that gender (or other) weaknesses are stronger at the top of the hierarchy than at the lower levels and that these losses become worse later in a person's career."
In the United States, women constitute 52% of the total workforce, but form only 3% of corporate CEOs and top executives. Some researchers look at the root causes of this situation in discreet discrimination based on sex, made by top executives and current corporate directors (especially men), as well as the "historical absence of women at the top", which "can cause hysteresis. , preventing women from accessing strong and male-dominated professional networks, or same-sex mentors ". Glass ceiling effect is recorded as very persistent for colored women (according to reports, "colored women look at the 'concrete ceiling' and not just the glass ceiling").
In the economic profession, it has been observed that women are more inclined than men to dedicate their time to teaching and serving. Because continuous research work is essential for promotion, "small cumulative effects, contemporary differences in research orientation can result in significant gender differences observed in promotion". In high-tech industries, research suggests that, despite intra-company changes, "extra-organizational pressure is likely to contribute to continued gender stratification as enterprise improves, leading to the masculine potential of skilled high-tech work".
The UN insists that "progress in bringing women to leadership and decision-making positions around the world remains too slow".
Potential solution
Research by David Matsa and Amalia Miller suggests that the possibility of improvements to the glass ceiling could increase the number of women on the company board, which could then lead to an increase in the number of women employed in top management positions. The same study shows that this can also generate "feedback cycles in which the presence of more female managers increases the pool of potential female board members (for the companies they manage, as well as other companies), leading to larger women's councils. and then increased further in female executives ".
Heavy-based sexism
A 2009 study found that being overweight was detrimental to women's career progress, but did not present a barrier for men. Overweight women are significantly underrepresented among corporate bosses, who make up between 5% and 22% of female CEOs. However, the proportion of overweight male CEOs is between 45% and 61%, too representative of overweight men. On the other hand, about 5% of CEOs are obese between the sexes. The study authors state that the results show that the "glass ceiling effect" on women's progress may reflect not only the general negative stereotype of women's competence, but also the heavy bias that results in the adoption of more stringent performance standards for women ".
Transgender discrimination
Transgender people also experience significant discrimination and harassment in the workplace. Unlike discrimination on the basis of sex, refusing to hire (or fire) a worker because their gender identity or expression is not explicitly illegal in most US states.
In August 1995, Kimberly Nixon filed a complaint to the British Columbia Human Rights Court against Vancouver Rape Relief & Female Shelter. Nixon, a trans woman, is interested in volunteering as an adviser at the shelter. When the shelter learned that he was transsexual, they told Nixon that he would not be allowed to volunteer in the organization. Nixon argues that this is illegal discrimination under Section 41 of the British Columbia Code of Human Rights. Vancouver Rape Relief argues that individuals are shaped by the socialization and experience of their formative years, and that Nixon has been socialized as a grown man, and therefore, Nixon will not be able to provide effective counseling to the women who are born. that shelters are served.
Objectification
In social philosophy, objectification is the act of treating a person as an object or an object. Objection plays a central role in feminist theory, especially sexual objectification. Feminist writer and gender equality activist Joy Goh-Mah argues that by being objected, someone is rejected by his agency. According to the philosopher Martha Nussbaum, one can be objectified if one or more of the following properties are applied to them:
- Mediation - treats the object as a tool for other people's purposes: "Objective objectives treat objects as their means of purpose."
- Rejection of Autonomy - treats the object as lacking in autonomy or self-determination: "The objectives treat the object as lacking in autonomy and self-determination."
- Inaction - treats the object as lacking in the agent or activity: "The objactator treats the object as lacking in the agent, and possibly also in the activity."
- Fungibility - treats the object as another interchangeable object: "The Objectator treats objects as interchangeable (a) with other objects of the same type, and/or (b) with other object types. "
- Violability - treats objects as lacking in boundary integrity and can be violated: "Objectives treat objects as lacking in boundary integrity, as being allowed to break, crush, go inside." >
- Ownership - treats objects as if they can be owned, purchased, or sold: "Objectives treat objects as something that others own, can be bought or sold, etc."
- Rejection of Subjectivity - treats the object as if it does not have to worry about its experience or feelings: "Objective treats the object as something its experience and feelings (if any) need not be taken into account."
Rae Helen Langton, in Sexual Solipsism: Philosophical Essay on Pornography and Objection, proposes three more properties to be added to Nussbaum's list:
According to the theory of objectification, objectification can have an important impact on women, especially young women, as it can adversely affect their psychological health and lead to the development of mental disorders, such as unipolar depression, sexual dysfunction, and eating disorders.
In ads
Although advertising is used to describe women and men in stereotypically clear roles (eg, as housewives, breadwinners), in modern advertising, they are no longer confined to their traditional roles. However, advertising today still stereotypes men and women, albeit in a more subtle way, including with their sexual harassment. Women are most often the target of sexism in advertising. When in advertisements with men they are often shorter and placed in the background of the image, displayed in a more 'feminine' pose, and generally present a higher 'body view' level.
Currently, some countries (eg Norway and Denmark) have laws against sexual objection in advertising. Nudity is not prohibited, and naked people can be used to advertise products if they are relevant to the product being advertised. Sol Olving, head of Kreativt Forum Norway (a leading advertising agency association in the country) explains, "You can have naked people who advertise shower gel or cream, but not a woman with a bikini draped in a car".
Other countries continue to ban nudity (at the base of traditional obscenity), but also make explicit references to sexual objectification, such as Israel's ban on billboards that "describe sexual humiliation or abasement, or present humans as objects available for sexual use".
Pornography
Feminist anti-pornography Catharine MacKinnon argues that pornography contributes to sexism by incarnating women and portraying them in subservient roles. MacKinnon, along with Andrea Dworkin, argues that pornography reduces women into mere tools, and is a form of sex discrimination. Both scholars highlight the relationship between objectification and pornography by stating:
"We define pornography as explicit sexual subordination of women through images and words that also include (i) women presented inhuman as sexual objects, goods, or commodities, or (ii) women presented as sexual objects that enjoy contempt or pain , or (iii) women are presented as sexual objects experiencing sexual pleasure in rape, incest or other sexual assault, or (iv) women are presented as sexual objects tied up, cut or mutilated or bruised or bodily injured; or (v) presented women in posture or position of sexual submission, slave, or appearance, or (vi) female body parts - including but not limited to vagina, breast, or buttocks - are exhibited in such a way that women are reduced to such parts; (vii) by objects or animals, or (viii) women presented in the scenario of degradation, humiliation, injury, torture, in show as dirty or inferior, bleeding, bruising, or hurt in a context that makes this condition sexual. "
Robin Morgan and Catharine MacKinnon suggest that certain types of pornography also contribute to violence against women with erotic scenes in which women are predominantly, coerced, humiliated or sexually abused.
Some people who oppose pornography, including MacKinnon, allege that pornographic production requires the physical, psychological, and economic coercion of the women who appear and model it. Opponents of pornography allege that it presents a distorted image of sexual intercourse and strengthens the sexual myth; this shows that women are always available and willing to have sex anytime, with anyone, on their terms, respond positively to every request.
MacKinnon menulis:
Pornography affects people's belief in rape myths. So for example if a woman says "I disagree" and people have seen pornography, they believe that the myth of rape and believe that the woman does not approve of anything it says. That when he says no, he means yes. When he says he does not want it, that means more beer. When she says she'd rather go home, it means she's a lesbian who needs to be given a good corrective experience. Pornography promotes rape myths and weakens people against violence against women so you need more violence to become sexually aroused if you are a consumer of pornography. This is very well documented.
Defenders of pornographic and anti-censorship activists (including sex-positive feminists) argue that pornography has no serious impact on mentally healthy individuals, because viewers can distinguish between fantasy and reality. They argue that men and women are subjected to pornography (especially sadistic or masochistic pornography, where men are subjected to and sexually used by women).
Prostitution
Prostitution is the business or practice of engaging in sexual relations in return for payment. Sex workers are often objectified and seen as existing only to serve clients, thus calling their agency sense to be questioned. There is a common perception that because they sell sex professionally, prostitutes automatically approve all sexual contact. As a result, sex workers face higher levels of violence and sexual assault. These are often dismissed, ignored and not taken seriously by the authorities.
In many countries, prostitution is dominated by brothels or pimps, who often claim ownership of sex workers. This sense of ownership further underscores the concept that sex workers do not have agents. This really happened in the case of sexual slavery.
Various authors argue that female prostitution is based on male sexism which justifies the idea that unwanted sex with women is acceptable, that men's desires must be met, and that women are forced into and exist to serve men sexually. The European Women's Lobby condemned prostitution as "an irresistible form of male violence".
Carole Pateman writes that:
- "Prostitution is the use of a woman's body by a man for her own satisfaction.There is no desire or satisfaction from prostitutes.Prostitution is not a mutually beneficial and pleasurable exchange of body use, but the unilateral use of a woman's body by a man in return money. "
Media depictions
Some experts believe that media portrayals of demographic groups can defend and disrupt attitudes and behaviors toward these groups. According to Susan Douglas: "Since the early 1990s, most of the media have come to overly excessive women as having made it entirely in the profession, having gained sexual equality with men, and have achieved the level of financial success and comfort enjoyed, Tiffany's-doyennes storied from Laguna Beach. "These images may be dangerous, especially for women and ethnic groups of minorities and races. For example, a study of African-American women found that they felt that African American media portrayals often reinforced this group's stereotypes as overly sexual images and idealized thinner, thinner black women (images of African American women describing as objects ). In a recent analysis of Haitian women's pictures in the Associated Press photo archive from 1994 to 2009, several themes emerged that emphasized the "peculiarities" of Haitian women and characterized them as victims in need of rescue.
In an effort to study the effect of media consumption on men, Samantha and Bridges found effects on shyness in the body, though not through self-objectification as found in comparable female studies. The authors conclude that current objectivity measures are designed for women and do not accurately measure men. Other studies also found a negative effect on eating the attitude and satisfaction of the body of beauty and fitness magazine consumption for women and men respectively, but again with different mechanisms, namely self-objectification for women and internalization for men.
Sexist jokes
Frederick Attenborough argues that sexist jokes can be a form of sexual objectification, which reduces joke sounds to an object. They not only objectify women, but can also allow violence or prejudice against women. "Sexist humor - defamation of women through humor - for example, underestimates sex discrimination under a benign entertainment screen, thus blocking challenges or oppositions that may be caused by inappropriate sexual communication." A study of 73 male undergraduates by Ford found that "sexist humor can increase the expression of prejudice against women among sexist men". According to research, when sexism is presented in a funny way it is seen as tolerable and socially acceptable: "Humiliating women through humor frees' sexist participants from having to conform to the more general and more restrictive norms of discrimination against women."
Gender discrimination (identity)
Gender discrimination is discrimination on the basis of an actual or perceived gender identity. Gender identity is "identity, appearance, or behavior related to gender or other gender related characteristics of an individual, with or without regard to the sex prescribed by the individual at birth". Gender discrimination is theoretically different from sexism. While sexism is a prejudice based on biological sex, gender discrimination specifically addresses discrimination against gender identity, including a third gender, genderqueer, and other non-binary identifiers. This is primarily linked to how people are treated at work, and the prohibition of discrimination on the basis of gender identity and expression has emerged as the subject of conflict in the American legal system.
According to a recent report by the Congressional Research Service, "although the majority of federal courts consider issues have concluded that discrimination on the grounds of gender identity is not sex discrimination, there are some courts that have reached the opposite conclusion". Hurst states that "[c] often we often confuse gender, gender and sexual orientation, and disrupt it in a way that results in the rejection of rights not only from gays and lesbians but also for those who do not present themselves or act in some way. traditionally expected from their gender ".
oppositional sexism
Oppositional sexism is a term coined by transfeminist author Julia Serano, who defines oppositional sexism as "the belief that men and women are a rigid and mutually exclusive category". Oppositional sexism plays an important role in a number of social norms, such as cissexism, heteronormativity, and traditional sexism.
Oppositional sexism normalizes masculine expression in men and feminine expression in women while simultaneously condemning femininity in men and masculinity in women. This concept plays an important role in supporting cissexism, the social norm that views the cisgender as a natural and special person compared to transgender people.
The idea of ​​having two completely different sexes is related to sexuality through what gender theorists Judith Butler called "the practice of compulsory heterosexuality". Because oppositional sexism is associated with heteronativity in this way, non-heterosexuals are seen to violate gender norms.
The opposite gender concept sets a "dangerous precedent", according to Serano, where "if a man is big then a woman must be small, and if a man is strong then a woman must be weak". Binary norms and gender opposition work together to support "traditional sexism", the belief that femininity is lower than and serves masculinity.
Serano states that oppositional sexism works in tandem with "traditional sexism". This ensures that "those who are masculine have power over those who are feminine, and that only those born as men will be seen as authentic masculinity".
Transgender discrimination
Transgender discrimination is discrimination against people whose gender identity is different from the social expectations of biological sex they have since birth. Forms of discrimination include but not limited to identity documents that do not reflect a person's gender, gender-segregated public restrooms and other facilities, dress codes according to binary gender codes, and lack of access to and availability of appropriate health care services. In the final decision, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) concluded that discrimination against a transgender is gender discrimination.
The 2008-09 National Transgender Discrimination Survey (NTDS) - a US study by the National Center for Transgender Equality and the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force in collaboration with the National Black Justice Coalition which was at the time the most extensive survey of transgender discrimination - shows that transgender Black in the United States suffer from "a combination of transgender and persistent bias, structural and individual racism" and that "black transgender people live in extreme poverty that is more than double the transgender rate, people of all races (15%), four times the population level Black is 9% common and more than eight times the general US population level (4%) ". Further discrimination is faced by individuals who are not gender appropriate, whether transitional or not, due to the displacement of socially acceptable gender binaries and visible stigmatization. According to NTD, incompatible transgender gender (TGNC) individuals face between 8% and 15% higher levels of self and social discrimination and violence than binary transgender individuals. Lisa R. Miller and Eric Anthony Grollman found in their 2015 study that "gender inequality can increase trans exposure to discrimination and behavior that adversely affect health." Adult transgender genders report more major and daily transphobic discrimination events than their sex who adjust themselves. "
In another study conducted in collaboration with the Latin American Citizen League, Latino/transgender people who are not the most vulnerable citizens to abuse, harassment and violence.
The latest version of the NTDS survey, called the U.S. Transgender Survey, was published in December 2016.
Example
Domestic violence
Although exact figures are widely debated, there is a great deal of cross-cultural evidence that women are subjected to domestic violence mostly committed by men. In addition, there is widespread consensus that women are more often subjected to severe abuse and are more likely to be harmed by violent couples. The UN recognizes domestic violence as a form of gender based violence, which it describes as a human rights violation, and the result of sexism.
Domestic violence is tolerated and even legally accepted in many parts of the world. For example, in 2010, the United Arab Emirates Supreme Court (UAE) ruled that a man has the right to physically discipline his wife and children if he does not leave a visible mark. In 2015, Equality Now drew the attention of a section of Nigeria's North Criminal Code, titled Correction of Children, Disciples, Servants or Wives which read: "(1) No offense is not the same as painful suffering to anyone who (d) by the husband with the purpose of correcting his wife, husband and wife subject to the law or indigenous custom where the correction is recognized as valid. "
Honor killing is another form of domestic violence committed in some parts of the world, and the victims are mostly women. Honor killings can occur because of the refusal to enter into a regulated marriage, to maintain unloved relationships, extramarital sex, to be victims of rape, inappropriate dress, or homosexuality. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crimes states that, "[h] our crimes, including murder, are one of the oldest forms of gender-based violence".
According to the report of the Special Rapporteur submitted to the 58th session of the UN Commission on Human Rights on family cultural practices that reflect violence against women:
The Special Rapporteur indicates that there are conflicting decisions regarding honor defense in Brazil, and that legislative provisions which allow partial or complete defenses in that context can be found in the criminal law of Argentina, Ecuador, Egypt, Guatemala, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Peru, Syria, Venezuela, and the Palestinian National Authority.
Practices such as honor killing and stoning continue to be supported by mainstream politicians and other officials in several countries. In Pakistan, following the 2008 Balochistan honor killing in which five women were killed by members of the Umrani tribe from Balochistan, the Pakistani Federal Minister for Postal Service Israr Ullah Zehri defended the practice: "This is a tradition of centuries, and I will continue to defend them. enjoying immoral acts must be fearful. "After the case of Sakineh Mohammadi Ashtiani in 2006 (which put Iran under international pressure for stoning), Mohammad-Javad Larijani (senior envoy and head of the Iranian Human Rights Council) defended stoning practice; he claimed it was a "lower penalty" rather than an execution, because it allowed those convicted to have a chance to survive.
Deaths due to death are the result of the killing of women who can not afford the high price dowries for their marriage. According to Amnesty International, "the ongoing reality of dowry-related violence is an example of what can happen when women are treated as property".
Gendercide and forced sterilization
The killing of girls is the killing of newborn girls, while female selective abortion is the cessation of pregnancy based on the sex of fetus women. Gendercide is a systematic killing of certain gender members and is an extreme form of gender-based violence. Girls 'killing is more common than boys' killing, and especially in South Asia, in countries such as China, India and Pakistan. Recent studies show that more than 90 million girls and women are missing in China and India as a result of infanticide.
Selective sex selective abortion involves termination of pregnancy based on baby gender prediction. Female fetal abortion is most common in areas where cultures value boys over women, such as parts of East Asia and South Asia (China, India, Pakistan, Korea, Taiwan), Caucasus (Azerbaijan, Armenia and Georgia), and The Western Balkans (Albania, Macedonia, Montenegro, Kosovo). One of the reasons for this preference is that men are viewed as earning more income than women. This trend has evolved steadily over the past decade, and may lead to a shortage of women in the future.
Forced sterilization and forced abortion are also forms of gender based violence. Forced sterilization was carried out during the first half of the 20th century by many Western countries and there are reports of this practice that are currently used in some countries, such as Uzbekistan and China.
In China, the one-child policy that interacts with women's low status has been held responsible for many offenses, female infanticide, gender selective abortion, female neglect, forced abortion, and forced sterilization.
In India, dowry is strongly associated with female infanticide, sex selective abortion, neglect and mistreatment of girls. Such practices are particularly present in the northwestern part of the country (Jammu and Kashmir, Haryana, Punjab, Uttarakhand, Delhi); see Fetish Women in India and Female Infanticide in India).
Female genital mutilation
Female genital mutilation is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as "all procedures involving the removal of part or all of the external female genital or any other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons". WHO further states that, "This procedure has no health benefits for girls and women" and "[p] rocedures can cause severe bleeding and urinary problems, and then cysts, infections, infertility and complications in labor increase the risk of infant mortality newborn, "and" internationally recognized as violations of the rights of girls and women "and" an extreme form of discrimination against women ". The European Parliament declared in a resolution that the practice "clearly contradicts the value of European stance on equality between women and men and retains the traditional values ​​that women see as male objects and property".
Sexual assault and victim care
Research by Lisak and Roth became factors that motivated perpetrators of sexual violence, including rape, against women revealing a pattern of hatred towards women and pleasure in generating psychological and physical trauma, rather than sexual interests. Mary Odem and Peggy Reeves Sanday argue that rape is not the result of pathology but a system of male domination, cultural practices and beliefs.
Mary Odem, Jody Clay-Warner, and Susan Brownmiller argue that sexist attitudes are propagated by a series of myths about rape and rape. They claim that in contrast to these myths, rapists often plan rape before they choose a victim and contact rape (not violence by strangers) is the most common form of rape. Odem also asserts that the myth of rape spreads sexist attitudes about men, perpetuating the belief that men can not control their sexuality.
Sexism can increase the stigmatization of women and girls who have been raped and hindered recovery. In many parts of the world, women who have been raped are ostracized, rejected by their families, victims of violence, and - in extreme cases - can be victims of honor killings because they are considered to have embarrassed their families.
The criminalization of marital rape is very recent, has occurred over the last few decades; and in many countries still legal. Several countries in Eastern Europe and Scandinavia made illegal rape before 1970; countries E
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